Ivan the Terrible

NAME Ivan IV Vasilyevich, commonly known in English as Ivan the Terrible. The epithet Grozny actually translates more accurately to "Formidable," "Inspiring Fear," or "Awe-inspiring," though "Terrible" has remained the standard historical label. 

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Ivan was the first ruler to be formally crowned as Tsar of All the Russias. He transformed Russia from a medieval state into an empire and a regional power, but he is equally famous for his psychological instability and a reign of terror characterized by mass executions, the creation of a secret police (the Oprichniki), and the killing of his own son.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Ivan was the son of Vasili III, Grand Prince of Moscow, and his second wife, Elena Glinskaya. 

Through his grandmother Sophia Palaiologina — a Byzantine princess and niece of the last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI — Ivan claimed descent from the imperial house of Byzantium. Elena's mother was a Serbian princess, and her father's family, the Tatar Glinski clan, claimed descent from Orthodox Hungarian nobles and the Mongol ruler Mamai. 

The Rurik dynasty — to which Ivan belonged — traced its lineage all the way back to Rurik, the first Prince of Novgorod in the 9th century, and Ivan himself claimed kinship with the Roman Emperor Augustus. (1)

CHILDHOOD   When Ivan was three years old, his father died from an abscess on his leg that became infected and turned gangrenous. 

Ivan was proclaimed Grand Prince, but the country was first ruled by his mother as regent. Elena Glinskaya died in 1538 when Ivan was eight years old; it is widely believed she was poisoned. Ivan's governess, Agrippina Fedorovna Chelyadnina, was arrested in connection with her death, and suspicion fell upon the powerful Shuisky boyar family, who seized power after Elena's passing. (2) 

After his mother's death, Ivan and his younger brother Yuri were largely neglected by the rival boyar factions fighting for control of the state. In a letter written years later, Ivan recalled: "What have I suffered for want of garments and food!" 

As a child, Ivan took a grim pleasure in throwing live animals to their deaths, and reportedly spent time torturing small animals and hurling pets from the upper windows of the Kremlin. 

He ordered his first murder at the age of 13, effectively ending the political struggles that had plagued his childhood, and had a man's tongue cut out at 15 for swearing. (3) 

EDUCATION Ivan was largely self-educated, reading voraciously from the vast library of the Kremlin. His letters — particularly his famous exchange with the defector Prince Andrey Kurbsky — display a formidable, if erratic, intelligence. He became deeply versed in Orthodox theology and Russian history, and this learning informed both his religious devotion and his political ideology of absolute tsarist power. 

CAREER RECORD 1533 Proclaimed Grand Prince of Moscow at age three following his father's death; ruled under the regency of his mother and later a council of boyars.

1547 Formally crowned as the first "Tsar" of Russia on January 16.

1552 Led the successful siege and conquest of the Kazan Khanate.

1556 Annexed the Astrakhan Khanate, gaining control of the Volga River and access to the Caspian Sea.

1558–1583 Conducted the Livonian War in an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea; the 24-year conflict eventually ended in failure.

1565–1572 Established the Oprichnina, a territory under his direct rule policed by a private army, marking the height of his domestic terror.

1581 Oversaw the beginning of the Russian conquest of Siberia.

APPEARANCE Contemporary accounts and portraits describe Ivan as tall, physically powerful, and commanding in presence, with high cheekbones and sharp, intense eyes. (4) 

In his later years, the mercury he consumed to treat his chronic arthritis caused severe physical deterioration — he foamed at the mouth, tore out clumps of his own hair until his scalp bled, and aged prematurely and visibly. (2) 

Ivan IV of Russia. Forensic facial reconstruction by M.Gerasimov. Shakko - Own work

FASHION As Tsar, Ivan dressed in robes of immense opulence befitting the wealthiest monarch in Europe. He wore the traditional ceremonial regalia of Russian tsardom, including the Cap of Monomakh — a jewelled gold filigree cap that served as the Russian imperial crown — and the barmas (jewelled shoulder pieces). 

His court at the Kremlin was noted for its Byzantine-influenced grandeur. In his very last days, he adopted the simple black habit of an Orthodox monk, taking monastic vows on his deathbed under the name Jonah. 

CHARACTER Ivan's character was one of the most paradoxical in history: brilliant, well-read, and genuinely devout, yet capable of catastrophic eruptions of paranoid rage. Contemporary sources describe him as intelligent and deeply religious but increasingly unstable, especially after the death of his first wife Anastasia, which appeared to unhinge him permanently. 

He could be charming and diplomatically astute when dealing with foreign powers, yet would nail an ambassador's hat to his head for failing to remove it in his presence. (2) 

In his final years, he compiled lists of the thousands he had executed and sent them to monasteries, requesting prayers be said for each victim by name — a sign of genuine religious remorse. He regularly flogged himself before the altar during Mass, fearing divine retribution.

SPEAKING VOICE His letters and proclamations are written in a commanding, ornate, and often savage rhetorical style. 

SENSE OF HUMOUR Ivan possessed a cruel and sardonic sense of humour. He reportedly enjoyed elaborate and macabre practical jokes on his victims before executing them. During the famine of 1575, he invited starving beggars to his palace ostensibly to feed them, then killed them and threw them into the river for his own amusement. 

He once nailed an ambassador's hat to the man's head for refusing to remove it in the royal presence. (2)

RELATIONSHIPS Ivan had at least six wives, although the Russian Orthodox Church only recognised four of his marriages. Three of them were allegedly poisoned by rival aristocratic families competing to place their daughters on the throne. 

Anastasia Romanovna (married February 3, 1547) was the great love of his life, chosen from over 1,500 maidens summoned from across the realm — those whose fathers refused to send their daughters facing execution. She was the daughter of Boyar Roman Yurievich Zakharyin-Yuriev, whose family gave their name to the Romanov dynasty. 

Anastasia bore Ivan six children, of whom only two survived: his heir Ivan Ivanovich and the intellectually limited Feodor, who would inherit the throne. 

She died on August 7, 1560, aged about 30, from a lingering illness, and analysis of her remains has since raised the possibility she was poisoned. Her death devastated the Tsar and appeared to trigger the spiral of cruelty and instability that defined the second half of his reign. 

Anastasia Romanovna on the Monument «Millennium of Russia» in Veliky Novgorod  by Дар Ветер

Maria Temryukovna, his second wife, died in 1569, also suspected of poisoning. 

Marfa Sobakina, his third wife, was chosen in the same manner as Anastasia. She became mortally ill after her selection and died before the marriage was consummated. 

Anna Koltovskaya was his fourth wife, recognised by the Church. She was later sent to a convent and eventually canonized as Saint Daria. 

Vasilisa Melentyeva, his disputed sixth consort, was packed off to a convent after taking a lover; Ivan allegedly had the boyfriend impaled on a stake beneath her bedroom window. (2)

Maria Nagaya, his last wife, bore him his youngest son, Tsarevich Dmitry of Uglich, who died in mysterious circumstances in 1591, setting off a dynastic crisis. 

In November 1581, Ivan struck his eldest son and heir, Ivan Ivanovich, in the head with his pointed iron staff during a furious altercation — historians generally believe the blow killed him. The moment is immortalised in Ilya Repin's famous 1885 painting Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan. (see below) 

MONEY AND FAME During his lifetime, Ivan IV was reputed to be the wealthiest monarch in all of Europe, presiding over the vast natural resources of an expanding empire. (2) 

His court at the Kremlin was of extraordinary opulence, and foreign ambassadors noted the profusion of gold and jewels on display. He expanded Russian trade significantly by opening up the White Sea route to English merchants of the Muscovy Company and granting them the right to trade throughout his realm free of customs fees. 

Ivan's fame — or notoriety — spread throughout Europe, and Western powers simultaneously courted and feared him; the anti-Russian propaganda produced during the Livonian War helped cement his "terrible" image for posterity. (5)

FOOD AND DRINK His court feasts were known for their extravagance, reflecting the wealth of the tsardom. 

It is recorded that during his periods of religious retreat and fasting — which became increasingly frequent in his later years — he subjected himself to severe monastic austerity. 

MUSIC AND ARTS Ivan had a genuine passion for music and was a composer of considerable talent. He composed the Orthodox liturgical hymn Stichiron No. 1 in Honor of St. Peter, fragments of which were later set to music by the Soviet composer Rodion Shchedrin; the resulting recording was the first Soviet-produced CD, released in 1988 to mark the millennium of Christianity in Russia. 

Ivan was a devoted patron of religious architecture, most famously commissioning St. Basil's Cathedral (completed c.1561), whose colourful onion domes remain the most iconic image of Moscow. (4) 

He also introduced the first printing press to Russia and established the Moscow Print Yard in 1553. 

LITERATURE Ivan left behind a formidable body of writing, most notably his correspondence with Prince Andrey Kurbsky, his former military commander who defected to Lithuania in 1564.  The letters attributed to Ivan are ferocious and rhetorically brilliant, combining theological argument with savage personal invective. Whether the letters are genuinely his own work has been disputed — Harvard professor Edward L. Keenan argued in 1971 that they are 17th-century forgeries — though the majority of scholars continue to accept their authenticity. (

Ivan was an avid reader from childhood, educating himself largely from the Kremlin's library. (3)

NATURE His reign saw an enormous expansion of Russian territory into the steppes, the Volga basin, and eventually Siberia, though this was motivated by imperial and economic ambition rather than any apparent love of nature. 

Ivan viewed nature through a utilitarian and often cruel lens. He famously used the icy waters of the Volkhov River as a mass execution site during the Massacre of Novgorod.

PETS  From an early age Ivan displayed a violent indifference to animal life, reportedly throwing live animals off the upper windows of the Kremlin for entertainment as a child. (3)

The oprichniki, his terror force, used dogs as symbols — they attached a dog's head to their saddles, symbolising their role as the Tsar's hounds hunting his enemies. (5) 

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Ivan was a keen chess player; he was playing a game of chess with his adviser Bogdan Belsky when he collapsed and died. (2) 

Death of Ivan the Terrible by Ivan Bilibin (1935)

Ivan played the trombone and composed liturgical music. 

SCIENCE AND MATHS Ivan demonstrated a pragmatic interest in technology when it served his military aims. Most notably, he employed Dutch and foreign military engineers to dig the tunnels beneath the walls of Kazan in 1552, then packed them with gunpowder to blow open the city's defences — a highly sophisticated military engineering operation for the era. (2) 

He also engaged extensively with English merchant adventurers and entrepreneurs, inviting Western expertise and trade into Russia. (1)

REIGN Ivan IV of Russia ruled Russia for 51 years, which sounds impressive until you remember that a good portion of it was spent behaving like a man who had swallowed a wasp and decided the rest of the country ought to suffer for it. His reign falls rather neatly into two halves: first, the energetic young reformer busily dragging Muscovy toward modern statehood; second, the increasingly unhinged autocrat terrorising his own population with the enthusiasm of a medieval tax inspector discovering overtime pay.

The early years were, by almost any measure, a remarkable success. Crowned the first Tsar of All Russia in 1547 — thereby giving himself a title grand enough to require several additional acres of parchment — Ivan worked with a group of advisers called the Chosen Council, who sound less like statesmen and more like finalists on an Orthodox talent show. Together they introduced reforms at a rate that must have left Russia’s bureaucrats faint with exhaustion.

There was the Zemsky Sobor in 1549, Russia’s first tentative stab at a national assembly, followed by a new legal code, tax reforms, local government reforms, church reforms and, perhaps most ominously for future Russian literature students, the arrival of the country’s first printing press. He also created the streltsy, Russia’s first standing army equipped with firearms — proving once again that if humans invent a new technology, someone will immediately ask whether it can be used more efficiently to shoot at neighbours.

Militarily, Ivan was on excellent form. He conquered the Kazan Khanate in 1552 by blowing holes in its supposedly impregnable walls with gunpowder, which was rather like discovering your medieval castle could be defeated by an enthusiastic mining surveyor. Four years later he annexed Astrakhan, giving Russia control of the Volga and access to the Caspian Sea. Muscovy, which had previously resembled a nervous woodland principality forever glancing over its shoulder, suddenly looked much more like an empire.

Then came 1560, and everything went spectacularly wrong.

The death of Ivan’s beloved wife, Anastasia Romanovna, seems to have snapped something in him. He became convinced the boyars had poisoned her — a suspicion not entirely impossible given later tests found high levels of mercury in her remains, though in the 16th century mercury turned up in medicines with the frequency modern wellness culture reserves for turmeric. Whatever the truth, Ivan emerged from the tragedy angrier, more paranoid and considerably less interested in balanced governance.

By 1565 he had established the oprichnina, which was essentially a state-sponsored nightmare. He carved out a personal domain within Russia and staffed it with the oprichniki: black-clad enforcers riding black horses and behaving with the sort of theatrical menace usually associated with amateur heavy metal bands. They confiscated estates, executed noble families and spread terror across the country with a zeal suggesting they genuinely enjoyed the paperwork.

The low point — admittedly a crowded category — was the Massacre of Novgorod in 1570. Convinced the city planned to defect to Poland-Lithuania, Ivan unleashed the oprichniki upon it in a frenzy of torture and execution. Thousands were killed. People were tied to sleighs and thrown into the freezing Volkhov River. Archbishop Pimen was reportedly sewn into a bearskin and hunted down by dogs, which even by the standards of the 16th century was considered a touch excessive.

Meanwhile, Ivan had embarked on the Livonian War in 1558 in hopes of securing access to the Baltic Sea. This turned into a 24-year catastrophe involving Sweden, Lithuania, Poland and assorted other neighbours who collectively decided they preferred Russia nowhere near the Baltic. The war drained the treasury, wrecked the economy and ended with Russia losing territory anyway — the geopolitical equivalent of setting fire to your own house during an argument and still losing.

Then came the family tragedy that has haunted Ivan’s reputation ever since. In 1581, during an argument that may have begun over the treatment of his pregnant daughter-in-law, Ivan struck his eldest son and heir, Ivan Ivanovich, with his iron-tipped staff. The younger Ivan died days later. It is one of history’s bleakest examples of losing one’s temper at home. Ilya Repin later immortalised the moment in his painting Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan, in which the Tsar looks less like a mighty ruler than a man who has suddenly realised he has made the worst mistake imaginable.

When Ivan died in 1584, he left Russia vastly larger, considerably more centralised, and psychologically exhausted. He had expanded the empire enormously and strengthened the machinery of autocratic rule, but he had also devastated the economy, shattered much of the nobility and left the succession in the hands of his frail son Feodor. The result was the Time of Troubles, a prolonged national collapse featuring famine, impostors, invasions and enough chaos to make one nostalgic for the Mongols.

It is difficult not to conclude that Ivan the Terrible was both one of Russia’s greatest state-builders and one of its most efficient wrecking balls — a man capable of founding institutions in the morning and dismantling society by teatime.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Ivan was deeply and sincerely Orthodox in his Christian faith, and theology was central to his worldview. He saw himself as a divine instrument — God's appointed ruler on earth — and the title of Tsar carried explicitly religious connotations, connecting him to Old Testament kings and to Christ as "the Heavenly Tsar." 

He convened the Council of the Hundred Chapters in 1551 to standardise Orthodox ritual and law across Russia. 

As Ivan aged, the contradiction between his faith and his atrocities produced extreme behaviour: he flogged himself during Mass in fits of mystical guilt, and compiled lists of the thousands he had murdered so that monks could pray for their souls. (2) 

He took monastic vows on his deathbed. 

POLITICS Ivan was the architect of Russian autocracy. He systematically destroyed the power of the hereditary nobility (the boyars) by executing, exiling or forcibly tonsuring their leading figures, confiscating their estates, and replacing them with a new service gentry who owed everything to the Tsar. 

He established the Zemsky Sobor (1549), Russia's first national representative assembly, and introduced local self-government in rural areas. Ivan also set the legal foundations for serfdom by introducing the first restrictions on peasant mobility. 

In 1564, after threatening abdication, Ivan extracted from the boyars the right to govern by absolute decree without interference from the council or church — a watershed moment in Russian autocracy. 

 He is seen by some historians as a champion of the poor, as he curtailed the worst abuses of the nobility, and this dimension of his legacy was exploited by Stalin, who celebrated him as a strong state-builder. (3)

SCANDAL Ivan's reign was one long accumulation of scandal and atrocity. He ordered the Massacre of Novgorod in 1570 on the basis of what modern historians believe was a fabricated conspiracy, resulting in the mass drowning and slaughter of thousands of men, women, and children.

Ivan killed his own son and heir with his own hands in November 1581.  

He had the Archbishop of Novgorod sewn into a bearskin and hunted to death by dogs. 

He had a foreign ambassador's hat nailed to his head. 

During the famine of 1575, he lured starving beggars to the palace and killed them for amusement. 

In his old age, paranoid and maddened by mercury poisoning, he foamed at the mouth and tore out his own hair. (2) 

MILITARY RECORD Ivan was, in his prime, a capable and innovative military commander. His greatest triumph was the siege and conquest of Kazan in 1552 — a Tatar fortress considered impregnable — achieved through the use of foreign military engineers who mined and blew open the city walls. 

Ivan IV under the walls of Kazan by Pyotr Korovin (1890)

1552 Conquest of Kazan Khanate

1556  Annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate, bringing the full length of the Volga under Russian control. 

January 1558  Launched the Livonian War against Sweden, Lithuania, Poland, and the Teutonic Knights, in a bid for Baltic access. Despite initial successes, the 24-year war ended in failure, with Russia ceding Ingria and losing Baltic access entirely. (2)

1571 Moscow was burned by a Crimean Tatar raid of around 40,000 men; with most Russian forces committed to the Livonian War, the city was barely defended. 

1572  Russian forces under Prince Vorotynsky defeated the Tatar army at the Battle of Molodi. Ivan, characteristically, had sat out the battle in distant Novgorod, and then executed Vorotynsky the following year. 

1581 Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich began the conquest of Siberia for Russia.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS In his youth Ivan was physically imposing and energetic. In later life he suffered severely from chronic arthritis, for which he consumed large quantities of mercury — then a common remedy — which ultimately made his condition catastrophically worse.  His behaviour deteriorated markedly in old age: he foamed at the mouth, tore clumps of his own hair out until his scalp bled, and suffered increasingly extreme mood swings and paranoid episodes. 

When his remains were examined during Soviet-era renovations in the 1960s, they showed dangerously elevated mercury levels — high enough that modern researchers have concluded he was very likely poisoned, with suspicion falling on his advisers Bogdan Belsky and Boris Godunov (who himself became Tsar in 1598). (2)

His skeleton also showed severe spinal osteophytes, indicating he was in considerable chronic pain in his final years. 

HOMES Ivan spent the majority of his life in the candlelit rooms and chambers of the Kremlin in Moscow. (2) 

For several years during the oprichnina period, he relocated his personal court to Aleksandrova Sloboda, a fortified residence some 60 miles from Moscow, where he conducted his reign of terror with monastic austerity combined with frenzied violence — alternating prayer and self-flagellation with torture and execution. In 1564, it was from Aleksandrova Sloboda that he wrote to the boyars announcing his "abdication" — a calculated political move to extract absolute power. 

TRAVEL Ivan's travels were largely confined to his own vast domains, which he expanded enormously over the course of his reign. He personally led military campaigns to Kazan and along the Volga. 

He never visited Western Europe, though he maintained an intense interest in it, corresponding extensively with Queen Elizabeth I of England. He even asked her to guarantee him asylum in England should his rule be threatened. The first Russian Embassy opened in London on February 27, 1557. (2) 

Ivan corresponding with Queen Elizabeth I of England Gemini. 

Ivan also sent delegations to Egypt and the Orthodox patriarchs of the Near East. (1)

DEATH A few weeks before his death, Ivan drew up a will naming his second son Feodor as heir, urging him to rule with kindness and give thought to tax relief. In his last years he also issued posthumous pardons to the thousands he had executed. 

Ivan died on March 28, 1584 (Old Style: March 18), after sitting down to play a game of chess with his adviser Bogdan Belsky. He collapsed and died in Belsky's arms. The date of his death had reportedly been prophesied in advance: Belsky was in charge of the fortune-tellers gathered from across Russia following the appearance of a comet, and they had foretold the Tsar's passing for that exact date. (2)

On his deathbed, Ivan took monastic vows under the name Jonah. He was buried in the Cathedral of the Archangel in the Moscow Kremlin.

The very high levels of mercury found in his remains when his tomb was examined in the 1960s have led many modern researchers to conclude he was probably poisoned, with Bogdan Belsky and Boris Godunov the chief suspects.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA The greatest screen treatment of Ivan's life was by the Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein, who made two epic films — Ivan the Terrible, Part I (1944) and Ivan the Terrible, Part II (1946), with the Tsar played by Nikolai Cherkasov. Made on the orders of Stalin to boost wartime morale and celebrate strong Russian leadership, they are widely regarded as two of the greatest historical biopics ever made. Part II was suppressed by Stalin after he felt its portrayal of the oprichniki was too critical. (2) 

Ivan has also featured in Russian opera: Rimsky-Korsakov's The Maid of Pskov (1873) portrays him as a central character. 

He appears in numerous novels, plays and television productions. 

The iconic image of Ivan by the 19th-century artist Ilya Repin — Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan (1885) — is one of the most famous Russian paintings ever made. 

ACHIEVEMENTS  First crowned Tsar of All Russia (1547), establishing the institution of the Russian tsardom. 

Conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates (1552–56), transforming Muscovy into a multi-ethnic empire and securing the full length of the Volga. 

Commissioned St. Basil's Cathedral (c.1555–61), still the most recognisable building in Russia. 

Established the Zemsky Sobor (1549), Russia's first proto-parliamentary assembly. 

Introduced Russia's first standing army (the streltsy) and its first printing press (1553). 

Initiated and expanded Russian trade and diplomatic relations with England and Western Europe. 

Began the eastward expansion into Siberia that would ultimately produce the world's largest nation. 

Left Russia far more centrally administered, culturally unified, and territorially vast than he found it — despite the immense human cost of his reign.

Sources: (1) Wikipedia — Ivan the Terrible (2) Encyclopaedia of Trivia — Ivan the Terrible (3) LinguaLift — 10 Things You Never Knew About Ivan the Terrible (4) Encyclopaedia Britannica — Ivan the Terrible (5) History.co.uk — Why Was Ivan So Terrible?

Catherine the Great

NAME Catherine II, commonly known as Catherine the Great

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Catherine the Great was one of Russia's most powerful and influential rulers. She reigned for 34 years (1762-1796) and oversaw significant reforms and territorial expansion. She is often compared to Peter the Great for her role in modernizing Russia.

BIRTH Catherine the Great was born as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst on May 2, 1729, in Stettin, Prussia (now Szczecin, Poland).

FAMILY BACKGROUND Catherine was born into the minor German nobility. Her father, Christian August, was the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and her mother, Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, was a member of a prominent German noble family. Although her family was not wealthy, they were well-connected, which played a significant role in her eventual rise to power.

CHILDHOOD Catherine's childhood was marked by a strict and somewhat lonely upbringing. Her mother was ambitious and pushed her daughter towards a future of high standing, while her father was more reserved and practical. Catherine's early life was disciplined, and she was groomed for a role in European royalty.

EDUCATION Catherine received an excellent education for a girl of her time, including instruction in history, languages, literature, and religion. She was particularly adept at languages, becoming fluent in French, German, and Russian, which later helped her navigate the complexities of Russian court life.

CAREER RECORD Catherine's career began when she married the future Emperor Peter III of Russia in 1745. After a turbulent relationship with her husband, she orchestrated a coup in 1762, leading to his deposition and her ascension to the throne. Her reign was characterized by significant reforms in government, law, and education, as well as a considerable expansion of the Russian Empire.

Catherine the Great was not a tsar. She was an empress. The title of "tsar" was used for male rulers in Russia, while "empress" was used for female rulers.

APPEARANCE Catherine the Great possessed a regal bearing, with a lofty brow and a pair of piercing, yet playful, blue eyes. In her youth, her thick chestnut hair framed an elfin face, accentuated by deep blue eyes, a healthy complexion, and a full, red-lipped smile. Her slender figure, reminiscent of a teenager, was complemented by a remarkably graceful posture that made her appear taller than she actually was.

However, as she aged, her appearance underwent a dramatic transformation. The once lithe figure gave way to a more substantial form, often described as "grossly fat." Her doctor’s advice to improve her health seemed to fall on deaf ears, as she embraced a barrel-shaped physique that was far from the ideal for an empress. Despite her physical changes, Catherine retained a playful spirit, even demonstrating a unique ability to wiggle her ears.

Below is a portrait of the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna (the future Catherine the Great) around the time of her wedding, by Georg Christoph Grooth, 1745

FASHION Catherine was known for her elegant but practical sense of fashion.  She often wore military-inspired attire during her reign to emphasize her power and authority. Catherine often wore elaborate gowns and jewelry.

Catherine the Great, ever mindful of her public image, took drastic measures to quell rumors about her dandruff. After discovering flakes on her collar, she had the audacity to imprison her hairdresser for a full three years!

In the mid-1700s, Catherine and other European monarchs received a unique fashion update: miniature versions of Madame Pompadour's latest wardrobe, sent directly from Versailles every five years. These fashion dolls served as a sartorial blueprint, inspiring local dressmakers to create their own interpretations of the French queen's stylish ensembles.

CHARACTER Catherine was intelligent, ambitious, and strong-willed. She possessed a keen mind and was deeply interested in Enlightenment ideas, which influenced many of her policies. Despite her ruthlessness in securing and maintaining power, she was also known for her wit and charm.

She spoke Russian with a German accent studdered with mispronounced words

SENSE OF HUMOUR Catherine had a sharp sense of humor, often displaying it in her writings and correspondence. She enjoyed satire and was known to use humor to diffuse tense situations or to subtly critique her opponents. She was known for her witty remarks and her ability to laugh at herself.

RELATIONSHIPS Catherine the Great’s reputation was somewhat tarnished by her penchant for younger lovers, a practice known as "toy boyaring." Her romantic escapades, which included a 22-year-old lover at the age of 60, were the subject of much gossip across Europe. And while she was not particularly fond of single beds, it was her marriage to the uncouth, drunkard, and erratic Russian Grand Duke Peter that truly raised eyebrows.

Catherine’s marriage to Russian Grand Duke Peter was arranged by Tsarina Elizabeth, who saw Sophie (Catherine’s birth name) as the perfect wife for her nephew. 

Before their wedding on August 21, 1745, Catherine was so naïve that she reportedly didn’t understand the difference between a man and a woman. Peter, a deeply unbalanced individual, humiliated and neglected her, wasting countless hours playing with toy soldiers on the floor. Their marriage was never consummated.

Despite ruling for six months, Peter III was never crowned before his murder on July 17, 1762. His coffin remained uncrowned for 35 years until it was finally opened for that purpose.

Tsar Peter III and his wife, the future Catherine the Great. by Georg Cristoph Grooth

A defining characteristic of Catherine’s reign was the significant influence wielded by her lovers, or "favorites." Ten men held this semi-official position, with Grigori Orlov and Grigori Potemkin playing particularly pivotal roles in shaping foreign and domestic policy.

Catherine had three robust sons with Gregory Orlov and an earlier son, Paul. Her second child, Anne, born in 1757, sadly passed away in 1758. Another son, Alexander I, was born in 1762.

Paul, whom Catherine did not particularly favor, may have been fathered by Peter or by one of Catherine’s lovers, with Serge Saltykov and Grigori Orlov being the most likely candidates. Paul eventually succeeded Catherine to the throne as Paul I of Russia.

Grigori Potemkin, Catherine’s chief advisor for two decades, was a colorful figure. Despite his boorish demeanor, potbelly, and discolored complexion, he distinguished himself in his dealings with Turkey, securing control of Crimea and strengthening Russia’s naval power. A former monk, Potemkin was known for his excessive drinking and his grotesque facial tic. Yet, his intelligence and strategic acumen overshadowed his physical flaws.

Potemkin was called by Catherine "my marble beauty", "golden rooster" and "wolfbird" among other terms of endearment.

During their long relationship, Catherine and Potemkin each took on other lovers. Catherine’s choices were often suggested by Potemkin to keep her entertained during his absences. One such lover, rumored to have been Catherine’s secret husband, was a witty, gifted mimic named "The Clown."

She was advised by Casanova on her dating technique:, no, it's not what you think - the notorious Venetian recommended to her how to reform the calendar.

MONEY AND FAME Catherine was immensely wealthy, largely due to the vast resources of the Russian Empire. She used her wealth to fund various projects, including the arts, education, and military campaigns. 

As the consort to the childish Grand Duke Peter, Catherine gained plenty of supporters by her readiness to accept Russian customs as her own.

After becoming Empress of Russia, Catherine's fame spread across Europe, making her one of the most celebrated monarchs of her time.

FOOD AND DRINK Catherine had a modest appetite and preferred simple Russian dishes, though she also enjoyed the occasional indulgence in French cuisine. She was not known to be a heavy drinker, preferring wine in moderation.

Catherine maintained her own hothouses in which fresh vegetables and fruit were grown at substantial expenses throughout the long frozen Russian winter." 

MUSIC AND ARTS Catherine was a great patron of the arts, supporting musicians, composers, and artists throughout her reign. She corresponded with many leading intellectuals and artists of the time.

Catherine was a woman of many talents, dabbling in both writing and theater. A passionate devotee of Italian music, she played a pivotal role in preserving Russia’s rich musical heritage. Under her reign, the earliest printed editions of native Russian folk music were introduced, a testament to her cultural interests.

Despite her love for music, Catherine was notoriously tone-deaf. Her singing performances, while enthusiastic, were far from harmonious.

A keen collector of antiques and paintings, Catherine amassed a vast collection, including the renowned collection of Sir Robert Walpole. To house her treasures, she established the Hermitage in Leningrad, a retreat that eventually evolved into one of the world’s most celebrated art museums.

Catherine's collection also included a remarkable set of earthenware, considered the most celebrated of its kind. This service, now housed in the Hermitage, consisted of 952 pieces crafted by Josiah Wedgwood’s company. Each piece bore Catherine’s green frog emblem and featured intricate depictions of English landscapes, all enameled in sepia.

LITERATURE Catherine the Great was a trailblazer in many ways, including her adoption of the fountain pen. The concept of a pen with an internal ink reservoir had existed since the 10th century, and likely that she had access to one of the early, experimental models of fountain pens, possibly a custom-made device

A woman of letters, she corresponded with the renowned philosopher Voltaire and hosted a literary salon at her court, welcoming writers and philosophers from across Europe.

Her love of books was legendary, and her personal library was her pride and joy. As Catherine herself wrote to Voltaire in 1746, "Since that period I have been under the greatest obligations to you. Before that period I read nothing but romances ... I have ... no desire for books less well written than yours."

In addition to her voracious reading habits, Catherine also penned her own works, including comedies, fiction, and memoirs.

NATURE Catherine had a deep appreciation for nature, often spending time in the gardens of her palaces. She had a country estate at Tsarskoye Selo, where she often retreated for relaxation.

Catherine took such a liking to a primrose in the palace garden that she ordered a sentry to guard the plant day and night.

Catherine and Potemkin traveled in grand style, accompanied by a portable garden carried by their serfs. This mobile oasis was set up at each night’s stop, providing a touch of luxury and comfort amidst their travels.

Catherine supported agricultural improvements in Russia and was interested in the natural sciences.

PETS Catherine was fond of animals and kept several pets throughout her life, including dogs, cats, and birds. Her favorite pet was a little dog named Zemira.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Catherine enjoyed horseback riding, hunting, and reading. She was an avid reader, often spending hours in her private library. Her interest in sports was mainly focused on equestrian activities, which she practiced regularly.

An equestrian portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna from before 1749

SCIENCE AND MATHS Catherine had a keen interest in science, particularly in the fields of medicine and technology. She encouraged scientific exploration and founded the Free Economic Society to promote agricultural and industrial advancements in Russia.

Casanova visited Russia in the 1760s and had the opportunity to meet Catherine the Great. During their correspondence, one of the topics they discussed was the calendar. At that time, Russia was still using the Julian calendar, which was increasingly out of sync with the Gregorian calendar adopted by much of Western Europe.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY  Upon marrying Grand Duke Peter, Catherine embraced the Russian Orthodox faith and was rechristened Catherine. Despite her religious affiliation, she maintained an enlightened outlook, patronizing prominent figures of the Enlightenment such as the rationalist Diderot and Voltaire. While she abhorred profanity in her presence, her personal life was as pure as a driven snow mobile.

In 1764, Catherine took a drastic step, confiscating the lands of the Russian Orthodox Church. This controversial move solidified her power and increased her control over the nation.

Midway through her reign, Catherine composed her own epitaph, expressing her desire to "do good and strive to introduce happiness, freedom, and prosperity." However, her views on liberalism evolved over time. Following the French Revolution, she became increasingly critical of liberal attitudes, suggesting a shift in her political philosophy.

POLITICS Catherine's political philosophy was rooted in Enlightenment ideals, and she sought to modernize and westernize Russia. She implemented a series of legal and administrative reforms, expanded the empire, and worked to strengthen the central authority of the monarchy. Her reign is often seen as the height of the Russian autocracy.

SCANDAL Catherine's personal life was the subject of numerous scandals, particularly due to her numerous lovers and the circumstances surrounding her rise to power. Rumors and gossip were rife, and her relationships often overshadowed her political achievements in the eyes of her critics.

Six months after her husband, Peter, ascended to the throne in 1762, Catherine allegedly orchestrated his demise. According to historical accounts, Peter met a tragic end during a dinner party, succumbing to injuries sustained in a scuffle. Grigori Orlov, a key figure in the coup that brought Catherine to power, is believed to have delivered the fatal blow with a footstool.

While the exact circumstances of Peter’s death remain a subject of debate, the coup that ousted him was widely popular among the masses. The ex-czar was deeply unpopular, and the cheering soldiers who supported Catherine affectionately referred to her as "little mother."

Catherine II on a balcony of the Winter Palace on 9 July [O.S. 28 June] 1762, the day of the coup

MILITARY RECORD Catherine's reign saw significant military successes, including the expansion of Russian territory through victories in wars against the Ottoman Empire and the partitions of Poland. She reformed the Russian military, making it one of the most powerful in Europe.

In 1764, Catherine installed her former lover, Stanislaus Poniatowski, as King of Poland. However, when Poniatowski began advocating for Catholic and political reforms, Catherine’s support waned. She sent troops to quell the unrest, resulting in a brutal massacre of 20,000 Catholics and Jews. In retaliation, Polish rebels carried out their own atrocities, slaughtering an estimated 200,000 people within three weeks.

Catherine’s meddling in Poland provoked a response from the Ottoman Empire, which declared war on Russia in 1768. Despite initial setbacks, the Russian army ultimately prevailed, occupying Moldavia in 1769 and inflicting a devastating defeat on the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Cesme in 1770.

In 1771, Russia annexed Crimea, a move that prompted an alliance between Turkey and Austria to force Russia to relinquish her conquests. However, Catherine’s determination prevailed, and in 1783, Crimea was officially annexed into the Russian Empire.

The Treaty of Constantinople in 1784 recognized Russia’s conquest of Crimea, solidifying her territorial gains. Catherine’s expansionist ambitions also led to a conflict with Sweden, which declared war on Russia and invaded Finnish territory in 1788. Despite facing initial challenges, Russia ultimately emerged victorious, sinking the Swedish fleet and forcing Sweden to accept the Treaty of Verela in 1790, which resulted in Russia gaining a portion of Finland.

Catherine’s aggressive foreign policy continued in 1793, when she carried out the second partition of Poland alongside Prussia, further expanding Russia’s territory and weakening Poland’s sovereignty.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Catherine generally enjoyed good health for most of her life, though she became more sedentary in her later years. She was conscious of her physical appearance and took measures to maintain her health, including regular horseback riding and baths.

Voltaire suggested that Catherine consult with the renowned Quaker and inoculator Thomas Dimsdale to protect herself and her son from smallpox. Dimsdale successfully administered the smallpox vaccine to both Catherine and her son, as well as to 200 other Russians.

As a sign of her gratitude, Catherine ordered the parents of the first child patient to re-christen their son "Vaccinoff," a name honoring the groundbreaking procedure. This gesture served as a public endorsement of the vaccine and helped to promote its wider adoption in Russia.

HOMES  The Hermitage, located adjacent to the Winter Palace, served as both a repository for Catherine’s vast art collection and a residence for her family and close associates. Catherine herself resided in the opulent Winter Palace, a sprawling structure boasting 1,000 rooms and a staggering 117 staircases.

For respite from the formalities of court life, Catherine often retreated to Tsarskoye Selo, her beloved neoclassical palace. This serene retreat provided a much-needed escape from the hustle and bustle of the city.

Tsarskoye Selo By Alexander2018 Wikipedia

These residences were opulently decorated and reflected her status as Empress.

TRAVEL Catherine traveled extensively within her empire, often undertaking long journeys to inspect her territories and meet with local leaders. She also planned grand tours of Europe, though these were mostly canceled due to political reasons.

When Catherine embarked on her coronation journey to Moscow, she was accompanied by a grand entourage. The court followed in a procession of 14 large sleighs and nearly 200 smaller ones, creating a spectacle of opulence. Among the sleighs was a miniature palace on runners, complete with a saloon, library, and bedroom.

During a tour of Crimea in 1787, Catherine traveled down the Dnieper River. To impress the empress and conceal the region’s true conditions, Potemkin erected elaborate sham villages along the route. After Catherine’s inspection, these facades were dismantled, revealing the impoverished reality that lay beneath. To maintain the illusion, Potemkin persuaded the peasants to clean their streets, paint their homes, dress in their finest attire, and put on a cheerful facade. Catherine, oblivious to their true plight, was deceived by this carefully orchestrated display.

DEATH Catherine the Great passed away on November 17, 1796, at the age of 67. She succumbed to a stroke while attempting to relieve herself on a chamber pot in her palace at Tsarskoye Selo.

Catherine II of Russia by Johann Baptist von Lampi the Elder Wikipedia

She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, where many Russian rulers are interred.

In her will, she offered a piece of advice to her successors: to avoid consulting "Germans of both sexes." This warning reflected her experiences with foreign advisors and her preference for domestic talent.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Catherine the Great has been depicted in numerous films, television series, and books, often focusing on her political acumen and personal life. She remains a popular figure in popular culture, with portrayals ranging from historical dramas to satirical comedies. They include:

1. LITERATURE Catherine the Great has inspired numerous works of literature, both fiction and non-fiction. Notable books include:

Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman by Robert K. Massie (2011): This biography offers a detailed and sympathetic portrayal of Catherine's life, exploring her personal and political struggles.

The Winter Palace by Eva Stachniak (2012): A historical novel that imagines the life of a young Polish woman who becomes a spy in Catherine's court, offering a fictionalized account of Catherine's early years in Russia.

The Memoirs of Catherine the Great: Catherine herself authored memoirs, providing insight into her thoughts and experiences. These have been published and studied extensively.

2. FILM Catherine's life has been adapted into various films, often focusing on different aspects of her reign or personal life:

The Scarlet Empress (1934): Directed by Josef von Sternberg and starring Marlene Dietrich as Catherine, this film is a highly stylized and visually striking interpretation of Catherine's rise to power.

Catherine the Great (1996): A television movie starring Catherine Zeta-Jones as the young empress. This adaptation focuses on her early years and the coup that brought her to power.

3. TELEVISION Catherine the Great's life has been depicted in several television series, offering more detailed explorations of her character and reign:

Catherine the Great (2019): A four-part miniseries produced by HBO, starring Helen Mirren as Catherine. This series focuses on the latter part of her reign and her complex relationships with those around her, particularly her lover Grigory Potemkin.

Ekaterina (2014-2019): A Russian television series that portrays Catherine's life in three seasons, covering her rise to power, reign, and personal relationships in great detail. It has been praised for its historical accuracy and strong performances.

The Great (2020-2023): A satirical and fictionalized series starring Elle Fanning as Catherine, this Hulu production takes a comedic and irreverent approach to Catherine's life, particularly her early years and her marriage to Peter III. Though not historically accurate, it has been praised for its witty writing and performances.

4. PLAYS Catherine the Great has also been the subject of various stage plays:

The Will of Catherine the Great by George Bernard Shaw (1934): A play that humorously speculates on what Catherine might have left in her will.

The Bloody Reign of Catherine the Great: A dramatic play that focuses on the darker aspects of her reign, exploring themes of power and betrayal.

5. DOCUMENTARIES Several documentaries have been made about Catherine the Great, focusing on different aspects of her life and legacy:

Catherine the Great: Empress of All Russia (2005): A documentary that explores her political achievements and her role in transforming Russia into a major European power.

Catherine the Great: Russia's Greatest Empress (2017): A documentary that delves into her personal life, her lovers, and her influence on Russian culture and society.

6. VIDEO GAMES Catherine the Great has also appeared as a character in video games, particularly in the "Civilization" series:

ACHIEVEMENTS Catherine's achievements include the expansion of the Russian Empire, significant legal and administrative reforms, and the promotion of education, the arts, and science. Her reign is often considered a golden age in Russian history, and she left a lasting legacy as one of the most powerful and enlightened rulers of her time.

Sources: (1) Chronicle of the World (2) The Alarming Story of Medicine by Richard Gordon (3) Table Talk by Derek Nimmo (4) The King's Favour: Three Eighteenth-Century Monarchs and the Favourites Who Ruled Them by JJ Mangan

Alexander III of Russia

NAME Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Alexander III was the Emperor of Russia from 1881 to 1894. He is best known for his strong counter-reforms, his emphasis on autocracy, and his efforts to strengthen Russian nationalism while reversing many of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander II.

BIRTH Born on March 10, 1845 (February 26 in the Old Style calendar) in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Alexander III was the second son of Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna (born Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine). As the second-born son, he was not initially expected to become emperor, as his elder brother Nicholas Alexandrovich was the heir apparent.

CHILDHOOD Alexander had a relatively quiet childhood, overshadowed by his elder brother Nicholas, who was thought to be the future tsar. Nicholas was considered intelligent and of robust health, while Alexander was seen as less promising. However, Nicholas died suddenly in 1865 of meningitis, making Alexander the heir to the throne.

EDUCATION Alexander was given a thorough but traditional military-style education, focusing on history, languages, and administration. His studies intensified after the unexpected death of his elder brother, as he was now being prepared for the role of emperor. Unlike his father, he had little interest in liberal reforms or Western political ideas.

He was tutored by Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who played a pivotal role in shaping Alexander III's conservative worldview. As Alexander's tutor, Pobedonostsev instilled in him a strong belief in autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationalism—principles that guided Alexander III's policies during his reign. 

CAREER RECORD Became Emperor of Russia on March 13, 1881, following the assassination of his father, Alexander II.

Reversed many of his father's liberal reforms.

Strengthened autocratic rule, suppressed revolutionary movements.

Implemented Russification policies, promoting Russian culture and language throughout the empire.

Focused on industrial development.

APPEARANCE Alexander III was a physically imposing man, standing around 6'4" (193 cm) tall, with a broad, muscular build. He had a large beard, thick eyebrows, and a stern, commanding presence, which added to his reputation as a powerful and intimidating ruler.

Tsar Alexander III c. 1885

FASHION Unlike his father and European counterparts, Alexander III preferred simple, military-style clothing. He often wore a plain soldier’s uniform rather than elaborate imperial garments, reflecting his belief in discipline and tradition.

CHARACTER Alexander III was known for his serious, conservative, and deeply nationalistic personality. He was staunchly against Western liberal ideas and believed in maintaining Russia’s traditional autocracy.  Alexander was strong-willed and determined but was devoted to his family and reportedly had a softer, affectionate side in private life.

SPEAKING VOICE He had a deep, commanding voice, well-suited to his imposing stature. Alexander's speeches were straightforward and authoritative, often emphasizing loyalty, discipline, and the strength of the Russian Empire.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Alexander III was known for his dry and sometimes biting sense of humor. Unlike his father, Alexander II, who was more diplomatic and refined, Alexander III had a blunt and straightforward manner. He often made sarcastic remarks, particularly about European politics and the aristocracy. He also had a fondness for practical jokes, though his imposing figure often made his humor seem intimidating rather than lighthearted.

RELATIONSHIPS Alexander III married Princess Dagmar of Denmark, who took the name Maria Feodorovna upon her conversion to Orthodoxy. Their marriage was strong, and they were deeply devoted to one another, despite the political tensions between Russia and Denmark  Unlike many of his predecessors, Alexander remained faithful to his wife.

Their wedding was a lavish affair held on November 9 [O.S. 28 October] 1866 in the Imperial Chapel of the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. However, financial constraints prevented Maria Feodorovna's parents from attending, so her brother, Crown Prince Frederick, represented the Danish royal family. 

Alexander and his wife Empress Maria Fyodorovna in 1893

His relationship with his father was somewhat strained due to their differing political views.

Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna had six children together including his successor Nicholas II. One chid died in infancy. 

MONEY AND FAME Unlike his father, who was known for his grand reforms, Alexander III adopted a more conservative approach, reinforcing autocratic rule. He rejected excessive European influences and was known for his personal frugality, preferring a simple lifestyle despite the vast wealth of the Russian Empire. However, his reign was marked by large-scale industrialization and economic growth, which contributed to Russia’s increasing prominence on the world stage.

FOOD AND DRINK Alexander III was a man of robust appetites and preferred simple, hearty Russian cuisine over the elaborate French dishes popular in the imperial court. He enjoyed black bread, cabbage soup (shchi), and roast meats, particularly game. He was also fond of kvass and vodka, favoring strong Russian drinks over imported European wines. His hearty eating habits contributed to his large, imposing physique.

MUSIC AND ARTS While not particularly artistic himself, Alexander III was a patron of Russian art and culture. He strongly supported the development of Russian realist painting, favoring artists like Ilya Repin. He was also instrumental in founding the Russian Museum in St. Petersburg, which remains one of the most important collections of Russian art today. 

Alexander had a deep appreciation for traditional Russian music and encouraged composers who reflected nationalistic themes.

LITERATURE Alexander III preferred Russian literature that reflected national identity and strength. He admired the works of Fyodor Dostoevsky and Nikolai Gogol, whose writings explored themes of Russian spirituality and social order. However, he was suspicious of radical writers and took measures to censor political literature that he deemed dangerous to the autocratic system.

NATURE Unlike many of his predecessors who embraced European court life, Alexander III loved the Russian countryside. He often retreated to Gatchina Palace, where he could enjoy nature in peace. He enjoyed long walks and was fascinated by the vast landscapes of his empire, believing that the ruggedness of the Russian land was tied to the strength of its people.

PETS Alexander III had a great fondness for large dogs, particularly Russian wolfhounds (Borzoi). These elegant hunting dogs were often seen at his side, whether at home or during hunts. His love for animals extended beyond dogs, as he was known to support efforts to preserve Russian wildlife.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Alexander III was an avid hunter and took great pleasure in shooting expeditions, often pursuing deer and wild boar. He also enjoyed fishing and spent hours at the rivers near his rural retreats. Due to his massive frame and physical strength, he was known to chop wood as a form of exercise and stress relief.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Alexander III promoted engineering and industrial advancements in Russia. His reign saw the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, one of the most ambitious infrastructure projects of its time. He also supported the expansion of technical education, recognizing the importance of modern science in strengthening the Russian Empire.

REIGN Most rulers are remembered for something grand—winning wars, founding cities, revolutionizing economies. Alexander III of Russia is primarily remembered for being extremely large. A man of immense physical strength, he once lifted a train car roof off his family after a derailment, an act of heroism that unfortunately also contributed to his death. He also had immense political conservatism, which did not kill him but certainly made life difficult for millions of his subjects. Let’s take a closer look at his reign.

Alexander III inherited the throne in 1881, which was an awkward time for the Russian monarchy. His father, Alexander II, had just been blown up by revolutionaries, an event that Alexander III took as a strong sign that reform was a terrible idea. Where his father had attempted to modernize Russia, Alexander III decided to unmodernize it as swiftly as possible.

The coronation of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Fyodorovna took place on May 27, 1883, in the Dormition Cathedral of the Kremlin in Moscow.

Grand painting by artist Georges Becker of the coronation

Upon taking power, Alexander III immediately rolled back his father’s liberal reforms. He scrapped plans for a constitution (a novel but, in his mind, ridiculous idea), cracked down on local self-government (zemstvos, which he considered dangerously democratic), and restored the absolute authority of the Tsar.

Russia, at this time, contained an impressive assortment of ethnic groups, many of whom were inconveniently non-Russian. Alexander III, a man who liked things simple and orderly, thought this was a terrible mistake and introduced Russification—a program designed to ensure that everyone spoke Russian, practiced Russian Orthodox Christianity, and generally stopped being so non-Russian. Poles, Germans, Finns, and other minority groups were less than thrilled by this policy, but that did not deter him.

Alexander III’s dislike for criticism was almost artistic in its intensity. He increased censorship, exiled troublemakers, and gave the secret police (the Okhrana) free rein to root out anyone who seemed even remotely inclined to have a political opinion. Newspapers were monitored, intellectuals were harassed, and Russia became one of the least hospitable places in the world for free thought—an achievement he took some pride in.

For a man with a fondness for military uniforms, Alexander III was surprisingly disinterested in war. His entire reign was remarkably peaceful, which earned him the ironic title "The Peacemaker" (not because he promoted diplomacy, but because he made Russia so militarily intimidating that no one wanted to fight it).

One of Alexander’s biggest foreign policy moves was the Franco-Russian Alliance (1892). This was a strategic friendship with France, largely because Germany and Austria-Hungary were becoming insufferable, and Russia needed a powerful ally. This alliance would eventually contribute to World War I, though Alexander III did not live to see it.

For a while, Russia had a secret non-aggression pact with Germany, known as the Reinsurance Treaty. This allowed Russia to avoid being ganged up on by Germany and Austria-Hungary, which seemed like a sensible arrangement. However, in 1890, the new German leadership let the treaty lapse, which did not improve Alexander’s already chilly relationship with Berlin.

Alexander III was also keen on strengthening Russia’s economy, though his methods were fairly blunt. He raised tariffs to protect Russian industries, promoted state-sponsored industrialization, and encouraged foreign investment—as long as foreign investors didn’t try anything clever like introducing democratic ideas.

By 1894, his health had worsened considerably. He retired to Livadia Palace in Crimea, where he died at the relatively young age of 49. His son, Nicholas II, took the throne—a development that did not end well for the Romanovs.

Alexander III’s reign was a study in contradictions. He was an intelligent but stubborn ruler, a peace-loving autocrat, and a railroad-building reactionary. His policies stabilized Russia in the short term but set the stage for future instability, ultimately contributing to the fall of the Romanov dynasty in 1917.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Alexander III was a staunch advocate of Orthodox Christianity and believed that the Russian Empire was divinely ordained. He saw autocracy as not just a political system but a sacred duty, arguing that the Tsar was answerable only to God. He was a strong supporter of the Russian Orthodox Church and viewed Western liberalism and secularism as threats to Russia’s unity and moral fabric.

Alexander III introduced the May Laws, which were not nearly as cheerful as they sound. These laws severely restricted where Jews could live and what professions they could enter, leading to mass displacement and violence. Pogroms—violent anti-Jewish riots—became frequent, and the government did little to stop them. Many Russian Jews fled, emigrating to Western Europe and America, where, in a remarkable irony, some of their descendants would later become influential in shaping global politics.

POLITICS On the day he was assassinated by revolutionary nihilists, Alexander II of Russia had signed a ukaz establishing elected positions for commoners in the Tsardom. This edict was immediately dissolved by his son, Alexander III, who rejected liberal reforms and sought to consolidate and expand the Tsar’s power. His reign was defined by a policy of "Russification," which aimed to suppress non-Russian cultures and promote a unified Russian identity. He also cracked down on revolutionary movements, increasing censorship and secret police activity.

SCANDAL Though his reign was less scandalous than that of his father or son, Alexander III’s harsh policies led to widespread discontent among minority groups, particularly Jews, Poles, and Finns, who faced strict restrictions. His intolerance toward dissent led to accusations of tyranny, and his reversal of his father’s reforms was seen by liberals as a betrayal of Russia’s modernization. 

Vladimir Lenin's elder brother Aleksandr was hanged in 1887 for taking part in a plot to assassinate Tsar Alexander III. He was a member of The People’s Will, a radical terrorist group.

MILITARY RECORD Unlike many of his predecessors, Alexander III did not engage in major wars. He focused instead on strengthening Russia’s military defenses. He expanded the army, improved the navy, and promoted military education. His diplomacy was centered on maintaining stability in Europe, and he was instrumental in forming the Franco-Russian Alliance against Germany and Austria-Hungary. His militaristic posture was more defensive than expansionist, but he firmly believed in a strong, battle-ready Russia.

Alexander III in the uniform of the Danish Royal Life Guards, 1894

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Alexander III was known for his immense physical strength. He stood over six feet tall and had a powerful build, which contributed to his image as a rugged and imposing ruler. 

On October 29 [O.S. 17 October] 1888,  the imperial train derailed at high speed near Borki station in Kharkov Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Birky, Ukraine). Alexander used his strength to lift the collapsed roof of the dining car, allowing his family to escape. However, the blunt force trauma to his kidneys sustained in this incident led to nephritis, which eventually caused his death six years later.

HOMES Although the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg was the official residence of the Tsar, Alexander III preferred the more secluded and militaristic atmosphere of Gatchina Palace, located outside the city. 

Unlike his predecessors, he did not frequently reside in Peterhof Palace or the Catherine Palace, as he disliked excessive grandeur. His love for Gatchina symbolized his preference for a practical and disciplined lifestyle.

TRAVEL Unlike other European monarchs of his time, Alexander III rarely traveled abroad. He distrusted Western Europe and saw it as a source of liberal and revolutionary ideologies. However, he did travel within the Russian Empire, particularly to the Crimea, which was a favorite retreat for the Romanov family. His limited international presence was in stark contrast to his son, Nicholas II, who frequently visited Europe.

One of the biggest projects undertaken during Alexander III’s reign was the Trans-Siberian Railway, a massive rail line that stretched across the entire Russian Empire. This was meant to improve trade, transport, and control over distant territories. Construction began in 1891, and though Alexander III didn’t live to see it finished, it remains one of the most impressive engineering feats of the 19th century.

DEATH Alexander III’s health declined rapidly in the early 1890s, with the nephritis caused by the 1888 train accident worsening over time. By 1894, he was gravely ill, and his condition deteriorated despite medical efforts. He died on November 1, 1894, at the age of 49, in the Livadia Palace in Crimea. 

Alexander III's funeral was held on November 18, 1894, at the Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg. He is buried in the same cathedral, which has been the traditional burial site for Russian monarchs since Peter the Great. The funeral procession involved a journey from Livadia, where he died, to Moscow and then to St. Petersburg, accompanied by extensive religious services and ceremonies. (1)

His death marked the end of his strict, conservative rule and led to the reign of his son, Nicholas II, who would oversee the fall of the Romanov dynasty.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Alexander III has been depicted in historical dramas and literature focusing on the decline of the Russian Empire. His stern and authoritative persona has been portrayed in Russian and Western productions about the Romanovs. Unlike his son, Nicholas II, he is often overshadowed in popular culture, though he is sometimes referenced in films and documentaries examining Russia’s imperial history.

ACHIEVEMENTS Despite his reactionary policies, Alexander III contributed significantly to Russia’s industrial and military growth. His reign saw:

The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which helped connect the vast empire.

The Franco-Russian Alliance, which shaped early 20th-century European geopolitics.

The strengthening of the Russian military, ensuring peace during his reign.

The founding of the Russian Museum, promoting national art and culture.

His leadership left a complex legacy—a period of internal stability but growing tensions that would eventually contribute to the Russian Revolution.

Source (1) The Royal Watcher

Alexander II of Russia

NAME: Alexander II Nikolaevich (nicknamed "the Liberator")

WHAT FAMOUS FOR: Emancipating Russia's serfs in 1861, a monumental reform marking the end of an era. He also attempted other modernizing reforms but faced constant tension between progress and autocracy, culminating in his assassination in 1881.

BIRTH: He was born Alexander Nikolaevich in Moscow on April 29, 1818.

CHILDHOOD: Alexander witnessed his father, Nicholas I, uphold a reactionary regime. Although exposed to progressive ideas like constitutionalism, his strict upbringing fostered a sense of duty and loyalty to tradition.

Despite strictures, Alexander enjoyed military drill and outdoor activities. 

EDUCATION: He received a balanced education, including military training and exposure to Enlightenment thinkers, shaping his complex view of reform.

APPEARANCE: Tall and athletic, with piercing blue eyes and a commanding presence, Alexander exuded both imperial authority and personal charm. 

Photograph, 1878–81

FASHION: In line with the aristocratic fashion of his time, Alexander II wore elaborate military uniforms and formal attire for court functions. He also wore simple civilian attire, reflecting his dual life as Tsar and family man.

CHARACTER: Described as intelligent, pragmatic, and capable of empathy. However, he could be indecisive and susceptible to flattery. 

SENSE OF HUMOR: While history doesn’t provide extensive information on his sense of humor, as a ruler, Alexander II was known to be serious and focused on his reform agenda.

RELATIONSHIPS: He married Maria Alexandrovna, and they had six children, including his successor Alexander III of Russia. Despite political pressures and challenges, their marriage endured.

Deeply affected by his wife's illness, sought solace in a later relationship, creating internal conflict. 

He maintained strong bonds with some advisors but faced frequent dissent.

MONEY & FAME: Wealthy as Tsar, but Alexander focused on modernization rather than personal extravagance. He enjoyed international recognition for the emancipation, but internal pressures overshadowed fame.

FOOD & DRINK: Alexander enjoyed simple Russian fare but indulged in European delicacies on occasion. He preferred light wines and moderate drinking, unlike his heavy-drinking father.

MUSIC & ARTS: He appreciated opera and theater, often attending performances with his family. 

Alexander supported educational initiatives promoting the arts but maintained a conservative stance on artistic expression.

LITERATURE: Alexander read widely, with a preference for history and philosophy. He favored works that reinforced traditional values and stability.

NATURE: While dealing with the complexities of governing, Alexander II had an interest in nature, which is reflected in some of his reforms related to environmental conservation. 

HOBBIES & SPORTS: Alexander II enjoyed hunting, a popular pastime among the Russian nobility. 

Active and athletic, he engaged in gymnastics, and swimming. He saw physical fitness as crucial for both military leadership and personal well-being.

Alexander II with his uncle, German Emperor William I, on a hunting trip together, 1872

SCIENCE & MATHS: His reign saw advancements in education and the sciences, with a focus on improving Russia's technological and industrial capabilities.

REIGN  If there were ever an award for “Most Optimistic Russian Emperor,” Alexander II would surely have been a front-runner. Ascending to the throne on March 2, 1855, he inherited an empire that was, to put it kindly, a bit of a fixer-upper. His reign coincided with the tail end of the Crimean War, which had taught Russia an important lesson: when you’re still fighting wars with muskets while your enemies have repeating rifles, things are bound to go poorly.

Alexander’s most famous move was the Emancipation Reform of 1861, which freed some 23 million serfs and earned him the cheery title of “Alexander the Liberator.” Of course, “freed” is a relative term. While serfs were now legally allowed to marry, own property, and start businesses, they were also saddled with decades of debt to pay for the land they suddenly found themselves responsible for. But hey, it was progress.

Not content with simply unshackling millions of peasants, Alexander turned his attention to Russia’s rather murky legal system. His reforms included trial by jury (a novel idea at the time), justices of the peace to handle minor squabbles, and—brace yourself—judges with life tenure. In a country where bribery had been more or less the official legal process, this was a genuine improvement. He also introduced the zemstvo system, which was essentially local government by committee, allowing for basic improvements in education, healthcare, and roads—three things Russia desperately needed.

Alexander’s military modernization, spearheaded by his war minister Dmitry Milyutin, finally dragged Russia’s army into something resembling the 19th century. Reforms included universal conscription (which was about as popular as you’d expect), better military schools, and upgraded weaponry. Before these changes, Russia’s approach to warfare had largely been: “Send in a million poorly armed peasants and hope for the best.”

Under Alexander II, Russia underwent a bit of an economic glow-up. The railway network expanded dramatically, stretching from a mere 600 miles to 140,000 miles—a vast improvement, considering that before, getting from Moscow to St. Petersburg could take longer than an actual war. Banking systems also improved, and Russia began exporting more grain and minerals, giving its economy a much-needed boost.

The Tsar also made strides in education, setting up zemstvo schools to boost literacy in rural areas. Meanwhile, censorship laws were relaxed, leading to an actual free press (for a while, at least). Newspapers and books flourished—though, given Russia’s tendency to swing between enlightenment and repression, it wasn’t long before certain headlines got people arrested again.

Despite all these reforms, Alexander II wasn’t exactly beloved by everyone. Conservatives grumbled that he was dismantling traditional Russia, while radicals thought he wasn’t moving fast enough. 

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY: Alexander navigated the tension between Enlightenment ideals and Orthodox faith. He aimed for reforms that respected tradition while acknowledging the need for change.

The serfs, constituting the largest group of unfree peasants in Russia, were intricately tied to the land, beholden to their lords or nobles. Restricted from leaving their villages or seeking alternative employment, the serfs endured various forms of exploitation and maltreatment under their masters. This system of serfdom, entrenched in Russia for centuries, posed a substantial hindrance to progress and modernization. Recognizing the impediment that serfdom presented to Russia's development,  Alexander II, influenced by his Christian convictions, proclaimed the emancipation of the serfs on March 3, 1861. This groundbreaking reform marked the commencement of a new era in Russian history.

During Alexander II's reign, there was a resurgence in the Russian church, facilitated by the widespread availability of Scriptures in the native language to all Russians from the 1860s onward.

SCANDAL: His later relationship with Princess Dolgorukova fueled rumors and gossip, creating tension within the royal family.

MILITARY RECORD: Alexander II modernized the Russian military and was involved in conflicts such as the Crimean War and the Russo-Turkish War.

Despite leading troops during the Crimean War, his military achievements were overshadowed by strategic failings and the eventual Russian defeat.

HEALTH & FITNESS: Generally healthy, although prone to anxiety and stress. Alexander maintained an active lifestyle but faced some physical ailments later in life.

HOMES: He resided in various imperial palaces, including the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and Peterhof enjoying their grandeur but also sought private retreats like Tsarskoye Selo.

TRAVEL: While he didn’t extensively travel abroad, Alexander II did visit various parts of the Russian Empire to oversee and understand its diverse regions.

DEATH: Alexander II was killed on March 13, 1881 in Saint Petersburg, Russia, by a bomb thrown by Ignacy Hryniewiecki, a member of the revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will"). It marked the tragic end of a life shaped by the struggle between reform and absolutism. His dying words were "I am sweeping through the gates, washed in the blood of the Lamb."

He was buried in the Cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg, Russia. This cathedral has traditionally served as the burial site for Russian emperors and empresses since the time of Peter the Great.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA: Portrayed in films, documentaries, and historical novels, highlighting the complex nuances of his reign and legacy.

ACHIEVEMENTS: Emancipation of the serfs remains his most significant achievement, though other reforms in legal, education, and military spheres stand as legacies. However, his failure to address deeper social and political issues paved the way for further unrest.

Source Encyclopedia Of Trivia