Edmund Hillary

NAME Sir Edmund Percival Hillary

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Edmund Hillary was a New Zealand mountaineer, explorer, and humanitarian, best known as one of the first two people to reach the summit of Mount Everest.

BIRTH Born on July 20, 1919, in Auckland, New Zealand. Though he often claimed to be from Tuakau, he was actually born at the Kelvin Private Hospital in Remuera, Auckland.​

FAMILY BACKGROUND His father was Percival Augustus Hillary, a World War I veteran, journalist, and beekeeper who was a strict disciplinarian with "strong egalitarian beliefs". His mother was Gertrude Hillary (née Clark), a teacher described as gentle and nurturing. (1)

He had one older sister, June, and a younger brother, Rex. His paternal grandparents were early settlers in Northern Wairoa.​

CHILDHOOD The family moved to a farm near Tuakau, a small rural town south of Auckland, in 1920. The young Hillary was smaller than his peers and very shy. He struggled at high school, achieving only average marks, and often took refuge in books and daydreams of adventure.  He gained confidence after taking up boxing 

His introduction to the mountains came at age 16 during a school trip to Mount Ruapehu, where he saw snow for the first time and was instantly captivated.​

EDUCATION Hillary attended Tuakau Primary School where his mother taught. 

For his secondary education, he went to Auckland Grammar School, enduring a daily train commute of more than two hours each way. The long journey kept him from most after-school activities and reinforced his natural shyness, though he often passed the time reading.

At the tertiary level, Hillary studied mathematics and science at Auckland University College for two years before dropping out, having little enthusiasm at the time for academic study. Formal education mattered less to him than experiential learning.

In later life, his achievements were recognised academically: he received an Honorary Doctorate from Victoria University of Wellington in 1970 and was made an honorary fellow of several respected institutions.

CAREER RECORD 1938 – Early 1950s: He worked with his father and brother, Rex, managing over 1,600 hives. This physical work contributed to his formidable fitness and endurance.

1939: His climbing career began reaching the summit of Mount Ollivier, near Aoraki / Mount Cook in the Southern Alps

1953: First Ascent of Mount Everest

1955-1958  Leader of the New Zealand section of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1955-1958) and reaching the South Pole by tractor

1960: Founded the Himalayan Trust in the 1960s, which built schools, hospitals, medical clinics, and airfields in the remote Everest region of Nepal 

1977: Leader of the 1977 jet-boat expedition up the Ganges River to its source (Britannica, Edmund Hillary).

1985: Accompanied  Neil Armstrong to the North Pole

1985–1988: Served as New Zealand's High Commissioner to India (concurrently Ambassador to Nepal and High Commissioner to Bangladesh)

APPEARANCE  Hillary was a tall man, growing to be about 6 feet 5 inches (195 cm) .  In his youth, he was described as a "skeleton as tall as I was" with a "hatchet-thin face". He was later known for his craggy face and famous beaming smile. Hillary's appearance became synonymous with endurance and quiet strength.

Hillary in c. 1953

FASHION Hillary wore a "Summit Anorak", a royal blue windproof smock made of Ventile cotton, during his ascent of Everest, along with down clothing, wool layers, and heavy leather climbing boots.​ (3)

In his everyday life, he favoured practical, rugged clothing suitable for the outdoors, often seen in shirt sleeves or simple sweaters in later years.​

CHARACTER Hillary was known for his humility, famously describing himself as just an "average bloke" and "not particularly gifted at anything."  He possessed a "thrusting mind" that swept away obstacles and a deep practicality. (4)

Hillary credited teamwork over individual glory and was deeply loyal to his companions.

Despite his achievements, he remained shy in social situations for much of his life but was driven by intense motivation and determination. He was compassionate, deeply committed to the welfare of the Sherpa people.​​

SPEAKING VOICE Hillary spoke in a distinct New Zealand accent. Though shy initially, he trained in public speaking through the "Radiant Living" movement, which taught him to speak confidently from the platform. His tone was often understated, matter-of-fact, and modest.​​

SENSE OF HUMOUR He possessed a dry, self-deprecating Kiwi humour. He considered humour essential for survival on expeditions, noting that when Sherpas laughed at dangerous situations, it eased the tension. He once stumped the panel on the TV show What's My Line? with his unassuming demeanour.​

RELATIONSHIPS His first wife, Louise Mary Rose, was an accomplished musician and the daughter of the President of the New Zealand Alpine Club. They married on September 3, 1953, shortly after his Everest ascent. Hillary was reportedly so nervous about proposing that he relied on Louise's mother to propose on his behalf.

They had three children: Peter (born 1954), Sarah (born 1956), and Belinda (born 1959, died 1975).​ Peter followed in his adventurous footsteps, becoming the first father and son to both summit Everest

Louise was the first fundraiser for the work in Nepal and was killed along with their daughter Belinda in a plane crash near Kathmandu in 1975. 

Hillary, with his first wife, Louise, and son, Peter, 1955

Hillary married his second wife June Mulgrew in 1989. She was the widow of his close friend Peter Mulgrew and accompanied him on many later travels and diplomatic duties.​

He maintained lifelong friendships with George Lowe (climbing partner) and Tenzing Norgay, whom he respected deeply and visited often.​

EVEREST Sir Edmund Hillary’s ascent of Everest in 1953 looks, in hindsight, like the inevitable conclusion to a well-organised plan carried out by sensible men with clipboards and an unusual tolerance for cold. In reality, it was the end result of years of trial, error, frostbite, and the stubborn refusal of the world’s highest mountain to cooperate. When Hillary and Tenzing Norgay finally stood on the summit, it was not so much a triumphal charge as the last careful shuffle of two men who had been edging upward for weeks and had no intention of undoing it by rushing.

The climb was part of the 1953 British Mount Everest Expedition, led by Colonel John Hunt, a man who believed that mountains, like military campaigns, could be conquered with sufficient planning, manpower, and tents. Sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club, it was the ninth serious attempt on Everest and employed what might politely be called a “siege” approach. About ten climbers were supported by hundreds of porters and Sherpas, all devoted to the single-minded task of dragging an alarming quantity of equipment higher and higher until the mountain eventually ran out of excuses.

Hillary was not new to the Himalayas. He had already been on reconnaissance expeditions in 1951 and 1952, which meant he had learned, among other things, that the Khumbu Icefall was exactly as unpleasant as it looked. This prior suffering proved useful. Hunt’s plan was to establish a ladder of camps creeping up the mountain, culminating in a final assault from the South Col, with two summit teams sent up in sequence, just in case the first pair ran out of oxygen, luck, or enthusiasm.

The chosen route was the south-east ridge from Nepal, which obligingly funnels climbers through a catalogue of horrors: the collapsing Khumbu Icefall, the deceptively serene Western Cwm, the brutally steep Lhotse Face, and finally the South Col, perched at nearly 26,000 feet and offering all the comfort of a windswept car park on the moon. By mid-May, the expedition had established its highest camp there, and Everest, having done its best to discourage them, was forced to tolerate further visitors.

On May 26, the first summit pair, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans, made a valiant attempt using experimental closed-circuit oxygen sets. They reached the South Summit, a mere ninety or so vertical metres from the top—close enough to see success, but not close enough to enjoy it—before oxygen problems and exhaustion persuaded them that discretion was the better part of immortality. They turned back, and Hunt calmly handed the next attempt to Hillary and Tenzing, sensibly equipping them with simpler, more reliable oxygen gear.

Hillary and Tenzing spent the night of May 28 in a tiny camp high on the ridge, where sleep was optional and comfort nonexistent. The next morning, they set off early, inching their way upward in air so thin it could be rented out as an abstraction. By around nine o’clock, they had reached the South Summit. Ahead lay a narrow, exposed ridge with spectacular drops on either side and, guarding the way like a final exam question, a steep rock-and-ice barrier some forty feet high.

This obstacle, later immortalised as the Hillary Step, was less a “step” than a vertical insult. Hillary led, discovering a narrow gap between rock and ice, into which he wedged himself with the kind of determination usually associated with stubborn furniture. By chopping steps and applying his ice axe with enthusiasm, he hauled himself up and, moments later, pulled Tenzing after him. Beyond this, the mountain relented at last, offering a sloping snowfield instead of outright defiance.

At about 11:30 a.m. on May 29, 1953, Hillary and Tenzing arrived at the summit of Everest. They stayed for roughly fifteen minutes—long enough to take photographs, leave small offerings, and confirm that no one else had got there first and forgotten to mention it. Then, sensibly, they went back down.

Hillary and Tenzing on return from the summit of Everest By Jamling Tenzing Norgay

Both men were adamant from the start that the achievement was shared, and they refused to say who stepped onto the summit first. Later, Tenzing would clarify that Hillary had arrived moments ahead, but the point hardly mattered. What mattered was that they had done it together, supported by a vast team whose labour made the moment possible.

The news reached the outside world on June 2, 1953, conveniently coinciding with the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Hillary was knighted and became famous overnight, though he remained, at heart, a practical New Zealander slightly bemused by all the fuss.

The ascent proved the south-east ridge was a workable route, confirmed the value of supplemental oxygen, and, perhaps most importantly, brought overdue recognition to the skill and endurance of Sherpa climbers. For Hillary, it marked the moment he stopped being a beekeeper with an adventurous hobby and became a figure of global significance, opening the door to later polar expeditions and decades of humanitarian work in Nepal. Everest was the summit of his climbing career, but in many ways, it was only the beginning.

OTHER EXPEDITIONS After Everest in 1953, Hillary shifted from “first ascent” mountaineering into polar exploration, high‑altitude science, river expeditions, and large‑scale humanitarian work in Nepal. He often said that what mattered most to him after Everest was not new summits, but the schools and hospitals he helped build for Sherpa communities.​

Hillary returned repeatedly to the Himalayas, climbing around ten more major peaks on expeditions in 1954, 1956, 1960–61, and 1963–65. In 1954 he led a New Zealand reconnaissance of Makalu and helped identify a viable route before illness forced his evacuation, and he also took part in climbs of peaks like Baruntse and Ama Dablam on later trips.​

In 1960–61, he co‑led the Himalayan Scientific and Mountaineering Expedition, often called the “Silver Hut” expedition, which wintered at about 6,100 m to study long‑term human acclimatisation to high altitude and also investigated Yeti legends, eventually concluding the “relics” were from known animals. This expedition, and the request from monks at Khumjung to build a school, directly triggered the creation of the Himalayan Trust and his long humanitarian engagement in Nepal.​

From 1955–1958, Hillary led the New Zealand party of the Commonwealth Trans‑Antarctic Expedition, initially tasked with laying supply depots for Vivian Fuchs’s crossing of Antarctica. Driving adapted Ferguson tractors, his team pushed beyond their original orders and became the first to reach the South Pole overland since Amundsen and Scott, and the first to do so in motor vehicles, arriving on January 4,  1958.​

Hillary in 1957 after ac­com­pa­nying the first plane to land at the Marble Point ground air strip, Antarctica

Later, in 1985, Hillary joined astronaut Neil Armstrong on a small aircraft flight to the North Pole, and with that journey he became one of the first people to have reached Everest, the South Pole, and the North Pole. These polar expeditions extended his reputation from Himalayan climber to all‑round explorer.​

In 1977, he led his last major expedition, “Ocean to Sky”, a jet‑boat journey following the Ganges River from the Bay of Bengal upstream toward its Himalayan source. Using small Hamilton jet boats, the team navigated nearly 2,600 km of river, rapids, and gorges, an adventure he later described in his book From the Ocean to the Sky and which he saw as both a physical challenge and a way of coping with personal grief after the loss of his first wife and daughter.​

In between these headline journeys, Hillary organised and joined numerous smaller climbing and trekking expeditions in Nepal, often combining exploration with visits to villages where his trust was building schools or clinics. Even when he was no longer aiming for major first ascents, he remained active in remote travel well into later life.​

MONEY AND FAME Hillary never sought to make a fortune from his fame, once stating he "didn't make a million bucks out of Everest". He used his celebrity primarily as a tool for fundraising for the Himalayan Trust. 

His image appears on the New Zealand five-dollar note, making him the only New Zealander to be on a banknote during his or her lifetime.

FOOD AND DRINK Hillary enjoyed simple, hearty food. On expeditions, he tolerated austere rations without complaint and later joked about the monotony of climbing diets.

On Everest, he subsisted on rations like sardines on biscuits, dates, tinned fruit, Kendal Mint Cake (for energy), and "lashings of sweet tea".​​ (6)

Hillary enjoyed social drinks; reports from expeditions mention beer (specifically Lhasa Beer in Tibet) and occasional whisky or wine in base camps.​

MUSIC AND ARTS His first wife, Louise, was a gifted musician who won a viola scholarship. Hillary commissioned a sculptor, Michael Ayrton, to cast a golden honeycomb sculpture for his garden, which his bees then took over as a hive

His appreciation for culture was evident in his respect for Sherpa traditions; he supported the preservation of Sherpa culture and art through his trust.

LITERATURE Hillary was an avid reader from childhood, devouring adventure stories by Edgar Rice Burroughs, H. Rider Haggard, and Zane Grey. In retirement, he enjoyed reading science fiction and adventure novels rather than high-brow arts.​

He authored over 10 books himself, writing several bestsellers including High Adventure (1955), No Latitude for Error (1961), and his autobiography Nothing Venture, Nothing Win (1975).​

NATURE Hillary had a deep, lifelong attachment to the natural world, finding what he described as “joy in the outdoors” and a “love of the bush” in New Zealand’s Waitākere Ranges. (1)

An active conservationist, he championed the protection of fragile environments, particularly in the Himalayas and Antarctica. To remain close to the sea and the wild, he built a family bach at Whites Beach on Auckland’s west coast.

His commitment went beyond advocacy. Hillary served as an International Director of the World Wildlife Fund and was honoured by the United Nations Environmental Programme for his conservation work in the Everest region. He also played a key role in persuading the Nepalese government to introduce forest protection laws and to designate the area surrounding Mount Everest as a national park.

A four-day track in the Waitākere Ranges, along Auckland's west coast, is named the Hillary Trail,  in honour of Edmund Hillary.

View from the Hillary Trail by Avenue - Own work

PETS His long tenure as a beekeeper meant he was constantly working with honeybees

During his Antarctic expeditions, Hillary worked closely with sled dogs, serving as an "assistant dog handler".​

HOBBIES AND SPORTS His main hobbies and sports were:

Mountaineering/Climbing: This was a passion from age 16, which he pursued rigorously in New Zealand's Southern Alps, the European Alps, and the Himalayas

Tramping/Hiking: An early interest developed through the Radiant Living Tramping Club.

Boxing: He took up boxing as a high school student, which helped him gain confidence against bullies.

Skiing: Learned on a school trip to Mt Ruapehu.​

Gardening: In his later years at his Remuera home, Hillary enjoyed gardening, particularly growing roses.​

SCIENCE AND MATHS Hillary studied mathematics and science at university before dropping out. 

On Everest, he used constant "mental arithmetic" to calculate oxygen flow rates and tank pressures, a critical task that kept him focused. 

His Antarctic expedition (TAE) was part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY), contributing to scientific research on the continent.​

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY In his 20s, Hillary and his family joined the "Radiant Living" movement, a philosophy promoting holistic physical, psychological, and spiritual health. He trained as a teacher for the sect, which gave him confidence in public speaking.​

Although raised with Christian ideals, he later described himself as agnostic, tempering his father's beliefs into a "compassionate and optimistic world-view" rather than a religious one.​ (1)

POLITICS Hillary inherited "egalitarian beliefs" from his father. He was known for his refusal to treat people differently based on status, famously preferring the company of Sherpas to dignitaries.​

Hillary's main political involvement was his period as New Zealand's High Commissioner to India, Nepal, and Bangladesh (1985–1988).  He also took part in the 1975 general election as a member of the "Citizens for Rowling" campaign, supporting the Labour Party leader Bill Rowling. 

SCANDAL Hillary caused a major diplomatic and media controversy when he drove his tractors to the South Pole in 1958 ahead of schedule. He had been instructed only to lay supply depots for the British explorer Vivian Fuchs but decided to push on to the Pole, beating Fuchs by 16 days. This was seen by some British officials as an "arrogant" move that upstaged the main expedition.​

MILITARY RECORD Hillary initially registered as a conscientious objector to World War II, a stance influenced by the pacifist tenets of the Radiant Living movement. However, he later joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) in 1943. He served as a navigator on Catalina flying boats in the Pacific, being posted to Fiji and the Solomon Islands.  His service was cut short in 1945 when he was badly burned in a boating accident in the Solomon Islands and was repatriated to New Zealand. 

Hillary in RNZAF uniform at Delta Camp, near Blenheim, New Zealand, during World War II

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS His job as a beekeeper, which involved handling thousands of 90lb boxes of honey, made Hillary extremely physically fit and conditioned for load-carrying. He was naturally strong and possessed greater endurance than many of his companions 

He suffered a severe burn injury during his military service but made a fast recovery (

Hillary had a high physiological tolerance for altitude. However, on later expeditions (such as during his Ganges expedition), he suffered from cerebral edema and altitude sickness, which limited his ability to climb to extreme heights in his later years.​

HOMES  Hillary lived on a farm near Tuakau from 1920 until 1935.

His main home was 278a Remuera Road, Auckland. Built in 1957, this modernist house designed by Gummer & Ford was his home for over 50 years.​

Hillary's holiday home was a bach he built himself at Whites Beach, West Auckland, which was his place of solace,  where he could escape media attention.

He also spent four and a half years based in New Delhi, India, during his diplomatic posting.

TRAVEL Hillary was a global traveler. Beyond his famous expeditions to the Himalayas (Nepal, Tibet) and Antarctica, he traveled extensively throughout India, Europe, and the United States for lecture tours and diplomatic duties. In 1985, he flew to the North Pole with Neil Armstrong.​

DEATH Sir Edmund Hillary died on January 11, 2008, at Auckland City Hospital following a heart attack. He was 88 years old. 

He received a state funeral, and his ashes were scattered in Auckland's Hauraki Gulf according to his wishes.​

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Hillary appeared on What's My Line? (1962) and was the subject of numerous documentaries including The Race for the Pole and Beyond Everest.​ 

His 1953 ascent was captured in the documentary The Conquest of Everest. 

ACHIEVEMENTS First ascent of Mount Everest (1953)

First person to reach both the North and South Poles and Everest

Knighted in 1953

Founder of the Himalayan Trust, which built schools, hospitals, and infrastructure in Nepal

Widely regarded as one of the greatest explorers of the modern era

Sources: (1) Teara (2) Ascent of Everest by John Hunt (3) Ventile (4) Steppes Travel (5) National Geographic (6) Outside

Vasco da Gama

NAME Vasco da Gama

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Discovering the sea route from Europe to India around the Cape of Good Hope, breaking the Arab monopoly on Eastern trade and ushering in a new era of global commerce and Portuguese imperial dominance.

BIRTH Vasco da Gama was born around 1460 (some sources suggest 1469) in Sines, a small seaport in the Alentejo province of southwestern Portugal. Sines consisted of little more than a cluster of whitewashed, red-tiled cottages occupied mainly by fishermen. He was likely born in a house near the church of Nossa Senhora das Salas, possibly on the second floor of the castle keep where his father served as commander.

Bronze statue of Vasco da Gama at his birthplace, Sines, Portugal by Georges Jansoone

FAMILY BACKGROUND Vasco came from a noble family with strong military and maritime connections. His father, Estêvão da Gama, was a knight who served in the household of Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, and later rose in the ranks of the Military Order of Santiago. Estêvão was appointed alcaide-mór (civil governor) of Sines in the 1460s and held the position until 1478. 

His mother was Isabel Sodré, daughter of João Sodré, from a well-connected family of English origin. 

Her father and brothers, Vicente Sodré and Brás Sodré, had links to the household of Infante Diogo, Duke of Viseu, and were prominent figures in Christ's military order. Vasco was the third son in the family, with siblings Paulo da Gama, João Sodré, Pedro da Gama, and Aires da Gama.

CHILDHOOD Little is known about Vasco da Gama's childhood and upbringing. Growing up in the coastal town of Sines, he would have been familiar with maritime activities from an early age. By age 15, he was familiar with the trading ships that docked in the ports, and by 20 he had already managed to become the captain of a ship. As a child of noble birth, he likely received a good education appropriate to his social status.

EDUCATION Vasco da Gama received his education in Évora, where he focused on mathematics and navigation—crucial disciplines for a future at sea. According to some accounts, he may have studied under the renowned astrologer and astronomer Abraham Zacuto. There are also indications that during the 1480s, he continued his training at an inland school specializing in navigational sciences. Around the age of 11 or 12, he underwent the Prima Tonsura ceremony at São Salvador Church in Sines, marking his entry into the clergy and the Order of Santiago, a religious-military order closely tied to Portugal’s maritime expansion.

CAREER RECORD Da Gama's career began with his naval service, where he was taught navigation. 

1492: Tasked by King John II to capture French ships, successfully completed.

1497–1499: Led the first voyage from Europe to India via the Cape of Good Hope.

1502–1503: Returned to India with force, brutally avenging Portuguese losses.

1524: Appointed viceroy of India but died shortly after arrival.

Throughout his career, he served as an advisor to Portuguese kings on Indian affairs.

APPEARANCE Vasco De Gama was short and stout, with a full beard and a ruddy complexion.

Anonymous portrait, c. 1525

FASHION As a Portuguese nobleman and high-ranking commander, Vasco da Gama would have worn clothing appropriate to his status and the era. This would have included garments made of fine fabrics, likely wool or silk, perhaps adorned with modest embroidery. During his voyages, practical, durable clothing suitable for long sea journeys would have been worn.

CHARACTER Vasco da Gama was a tough and fearless navigator who solidified his reputation as a reputable sailor. However, contemporary accounts paint a troubling picture of his personality. Historical evidence portrays him as someone who was violent and aggressive even by the standards of his time. He was described as an ill-tempered and dangerous character, willing to use violence including against unarmed civilians to achieve his objectives. Da Gama was noted for his heavy-handed approach and willingness to take what he wanted "at the point of a canon". His expeditions were marked by aggressive tactics, ruthless behavior, and the use of military might to overcome local resistance. (1)

RELATIONSHIPS Vasco da Gama married Catarina de Ataíde, a noblewoman, around 1500. Together they had six sons and one daughter: Dom Francisco da Gama (who inherited his father's titles), Dom Estêvão da Gama (who became Governor of India), Dom Cristóvão da Gama (who became Captain of Malacca), and others. 

His family relationships were strong, as evidenced by his grief over his brother Paulo da Gama's death during their return from the first voyage.

His relationship with King Manuel I was one of a loyal servant to his monarch, receiving crucial appointments and honors.

EXPEDITIONS In 1497, King Manuel I of Portugal, who seemed to have the combined ambition of Napoleon and a cruise director, decided it was high time someone found a sea route to the Indian Ocean that didn’t involve asking the Arabs for directions. For this task, he turned to Vasco da Gama, a sturdy fellow with a decent record of slapping French pirates about along the Gold Coast.

Da Gama, for his part, probably thought this sounded like a fun outing, and so on July 8, 1497, he set sail from Lisbon with four ships, 170 men, and the sort of vague instructions that implied "we’d rather you came back alive, but do bring spices if you can.” 

Vasco da Gama leaving the port of Lisbon, Portugal by Roque Gameiro 

They were out of sight of land for more than 13 weeks, which, considering no one had ever attempted such a thing before, was equal parts impressive and insane. They somehow managed to cover over 6,000 miles of open ocean, which was a bit like trying to navigate from New York to Buenos Aires in a bathtub with a windsock.

Eventually, they reached the southwestern tip of Africa—what earlier explorer Bartolomeu Dias had understandably called "Cabo das Tormentas" (Cape of Storms) but which da Gama optimistically renamed the Cape of Good Hope, a name that suggested both wishful thinking and a fairly dry sense of humour.

On December 16, they sailed past the Great Fish River, where Bartolomeu Dias had once turned around and sensibly gone home. But Vasco, who clearly had less interest in fish and more in being first, pressed on.

By Christmas Day—when most Europeans were still stuck trying to peel chestnuts without a decent recipe—da Gama had reached a previously unseen part of the South African coast. Naturally, he named it Natal, because “Natale” means Christmas in Portuguese, and explorers of the era never missed a chance to name places after either calendar events or saints.

They pushed on, reaching Mozambique in early March. Unfortunately for da Gama, Mozambique was firmly in the hands of Arab merchants who were not in the market for European visitors with brass pots and funny hats. Once the locals realized the Portuguese weren’t Muslims, they got a bit cross, and da Gama, being practical, simply left.

Next stop: Mombasa, Kenya. They arrived in early April, became the first Europeans to do so, and were promptly made to feel as welcome as a tax auditor at a beach picnic. Once again, Vasco and crew fled north, eventually reaching Malindi, where they hired a much-needed Indian pilot—someone who actually knew where India was.

Thanks to this sensible decision, on May 20, 1498, they finally made it to Calicut, India. Vasco da Gama had, against all odds and navigational probabilities, sailed from Europe to India without stopping at a single proper hotel. 

The arrival of Vasco da Gama at Calicut (Kozhikode), by Roque Gameiro, 1900.

To celebrate, he presented the ruler of Calicut with what he clearly believed were dazzling royal gifts: four scarlet cloaks, six hats, four coral branches, some brass pots, a chest of sugar, two barrels of oil, and a cask of honey. The king, who was used to getting gold and gemstones from Arab traders, was not amused. One suspects he may have politely smiled, nodded, and then quietly passed the items to his chambermaids.

Complicating matters, the Indians at the time included a community of Christians known as the St. Thomas Christians through spiritual descent from the apostle himself. Even more complicating matters, the local Arab merchants soon persuaded everyone that these oddly dressed Portuguese visitors were more trouble than they were worth. Vasco da Gama, sensing the mood, made a speedy exit before things turned ugly—and before anyone thought to impound his ships.

The return journey to Lisbon was, in a word, grim. They faced uncooperative winds, rampant disease, and various bouts of existential doubt. Da Gama’s brother Paulo became desperately ill, and Vasco, showing a rare soft spot, stayed with him at Cape Verde rather than sailing on. Paulo died en route, and da Gama, now both triumphant and bereaved, buried him in the Azores, then finally limped into Lisbon on September 9, 1499, looking a bit like someone who had just circled the Earth twice in a canoe.

One of the ships, the Berrio, had actually beaten him home, arriving in July. Its commander, Nicolau Coelho, cheerfully reported the whole thing to the court, likely omitting the parts about scurvy, hostility, and one ship disappearing entirely.

Still, it had all been worth it. The spices and gemstones that did survive the trip made a fortune for the crown, and da Gama had—somehow—done what no European had done before: found a sea route to India. His voyage smashed the Arab monopoly on spice routes and turned Portugal into the Amazon Prime of the 16th century.

But Vasco da Gama wasn’t done. In 1502, he went back to India, this time less like a pioneer and more like a vengeful pirate. Hearing that some Portuguese settlers had been massacred, he responded with chilling overkill—seizing ships, burning 300 innocent pilgrims alive, and performing acts of cruelty that even his own era thought were a bit much. At one point, he mutilated prisoners and sent their body parts in a boat with a note inviting the local ruler to use them for curry. One suspects this was not intended as a culinary suggestion.

He made a final voyage in 1524, now as Viceroy of Portuguese India, bringing along two of his sons and commanding a fleet of 14 ships. Unfortunately, the journey was cursed from the outset—half the ships were lost en route—and da Gama himself contracted malaria and died on Christmas Eve, 1524, in Cochin, India. It was a quiet end for a man who had once reconfigured the world.

Below is a portrait of an aged Vasco da Gama, as Viceroy of India and Count of Vidigueira, in Livro de Lisuarte de Abreu, c. 1560

His body was returned to Portugal in 1539, and eventually interred in proper, glittering fashion. He remains one of the great (if deeply complicated) architects of European expansion—a man who linked continents, rewrote maps, and changed history, armed only with scarlet cloaks, a compass, and a disturbingly high tolerance for vengeance.

MONEY AND FAME Da Gama's expeditions brought him considerable wealth and recognition. King Manuel I granted him the title of dom, an annual pension of 1,000 cruzados, and estates following his first successful voyage.

In 1519, he was granted the title of Count of Vidigueira by King Manuel I, created by royal decree in Évora on December 29, 1519. This title included revenues and privileges from the towns of Vidigueira and Vila de Frades. He was also appointed Admiral of the Seas of India and later became the 6th Governor and 2nd Viceroy of Portuguese India.

FOOD AND DRINK During his voyages, food and drink would have consisted of ship's rations: salted meat and fish, hardtack (biscuits), dried vegetables, and water or wine. 

De Gama's first voyage to India opened up the Oceanic spice route from Asia to Europe. Three years after his journey 100 tons of spice arrived in Portugal. By 1503 pepper sold in Lisbon was five times cheaper than in Venice. 

MUSIC AND ARTS He decorated his final home in Évora with elaborate paintings of beasts and Indians, suggesting a taste for dramatic, exotic imagery.

LITERATURE As noted by historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam, da Gama "left almost no personal writing or journals" compared to some of his contemporaries like Christopher Columbus.

Accounts of his voyages became significant historical and literary narratives, inspiring epic poems like Luís Vaz de Camões' 1572 national epic "Os Lusíadas." The poem mythologized his voyages, including fictional encounters with Venus and other deities.

NATURE As a mariner, Vasco da Gama spent a considerable portion of his life at sea, experiencing diverse marine environments and climates. His voyages contributed significantly to European knowledge of global geography, weather patterns, and maritime routes. 

HOBBIES AND SPORTS During da Gama's lifetime the concept of "hobbies" as we understand them today was quite different. For nobles and professionals of his social standing, leisure activities were often intertwined with their professional and social obligations. Activities like hunting, riding, and military exercises were both practical skills and forms of recreation for the nobility.

SCIENCE AND MATHS  Vasco da Gama’s education equipped him with a solid grounding in mathematics and navigation—vital skills for the complex art of celestial navigation. At the time, navigating by the stars required more than a compass and a good sense of direction; it involved precise calculations and a working knowledge of astronomy. Fortunately for da Gama, Portugal was leading the pack in this department. Under King John II, the Portuguese crown had assembled a Junta de Mathematicos—a panel of scientific minds tasked with advancing practical astronomy for oceanic exploration. Thanks to their innovations, Portuguese mariners had tools like the astrolabe at their disposal, which da Gama used to chart his course. 

He also relied on local expertise along the way—most notably an Indian pilot named Kanha, who used traditional instruments like the kamal to determine latitude. It was a blending of old-world science and local know-how that helped carry da Gama across thousands of miles of uncharted ocean.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Vasco da Gama was a deeply devout Christian, and his voyages carried a strong undercurrent of religious purpose. King Manuel I had tasked him not only with finding a sea route to India but also with locating Christian allies in the East—fueled by the long-standing European myth of Prester John, a fabled Christian king said to rule a hidden kingdom somewhere beyond Islam.

Da Gama was a member of the Military Order of Santiago, a religious order of warrior-knights, and his piety was more than symbolic. After successfully reaching India, he commissioned the rebuilding of the Church of Nossa Senhora das Salas in his hometown of Sines in thanksgiving. Legend has it that whenever he sailed past the coast, he saluted the church with cannon fire as a tribute to the Virgin Mary.

During his travels in South India, da Gama encountered the “Christians of St. Thomas”—a community that traced its roots back to the Apostle Thomas himself. His expeditions didn’t just redraw trade routes; they opened the door to a regular exchange of information about Asia’s diverse religious traditions, including this ancient strand of Christianity that had long predated European contact.

 

POLITICS Vasco da Gama navigated not only uncharted seas but also the shifting political tides of late 15th and early 16th century Portugal. His fortunes rose sharply after King Manuel I took the throne in 1495, bringing with him a new power structure that favored the da Gama family's allies and patrons.

As Portugal’s influence expanded eastward, da Gama became a key advisor to the crown on Indian affairs. But his approach to diplomacy was anything but delicate—he wielded both political pressure and military might to establish Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean. Local rulers were often met not with open trade but with demands backed by firepower, making it clear that Portugal had arrived not just to barter, but to control.

SCANDAL  Vasco da Gama’s legacy, while celebrated for its role in opening a sea route to India, is also shadowed by acts of extreme violence and cruelty. On his second voyage in 1502, da Gama orchestrated a massacre that remains one of the darkest chapters in Portuguese maritime history: he captured a ship of Malabar Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca and, on October 1, ordered it burned with some 300 men, women, and children still aboard.

Da Gama demanded that all Muslims be expelled from Calicut. When the local authorities hesitated, he responded with chilling brutality: his men executed the traders and fishermen they had captured, then dismembered the bodies. The severed heads and limbs were placed in the bottom of a small boat, along with a message in Arabic mockingly inviting the city’s ruler to use the “remains” to prepare a curry. It was a calculated act of terror, intended to send an unmistakable warning about the cost of defying Portuguese demands.

His methods of establishing Portuguese control in the Indian Ocean also included hostage-taking, bombardment of coastal cities that resisted, mass executions, and the mutilation of prisoners. These were not isolated acts of war but part of a systematic use of terror as a tool of diplomacy. Today, many historians consider these actions as constituting crimes against humanity, raising uncomfortable questions about how historical figures like da Gama are remembered and celebrated.

MILITARY RECORD Da Gama held several important military positions and titles. He was a member of the Military Order of Santiago like his father. He served as Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia, India, and all the Orient. 

Vasco da Gama's military career was both distinguished and notoriously ruthless.

Early Years: He first made a name for himself in 1492, when he swiftly and decisively seized French ships anchored in Setúbal, earning the attention of the Portuguese crown.

First Voyage: Though primarily an exploratory mission to chart a sea route to India, it was not without conflict. Da Gama displayed strong tactical leadership, navigating hostile waters and engaging in minor skirmishes as he pushed into unfamiliar territory.

Second Voyage – The Punitive Expedition: This mission marked a turning point. Leading a heavily armed fleet, da Gama launched a full-scale military campaign across the Indian Ocean. He targeted Muslim merchant shipping, bombarded coastal cities like Calicut, and enforced Portuguese demands with merciless force. His tactics—ranging from naval blockades to brutal acts of reprisal—secured Portugal’s foothold in the region, but at a staggering human cost.

Final Voyage as Viceroy: Appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1524, da Gama’s last mission was administrative in title but military in tone. Tasked with restoring order among corrupt Portuguese officials, he wielded his authority to suppress internal dissent and reassert Lisbon’s control over its far-flung eastern colonies.

 

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS  Da Gama's health deteriorated during his maritime career due to the arduous nature of long sea voyages. During his first voyage, many crew members, including da Gama, suffered from scurvy. On his final voyage in 1524, he contracted malaria shortly after arriving in Cochin and died from illness. Some sources suggest his death may have been due to the cumulative effects of his arduous journeys, possibly consistent with anthrax bacillary infection.

HOMES Vasco da Gama was born in Sines and likely spent his childhood at the castle where his father served as commander. He later built a manor in Sines, though King Manuel ordered the work suspended and expelled da Gama and his family from Sines due to conflicts with the Order of Santiago. 

As Count of Vidigueira, he acquired properties including the towns of Vidigueira and Vila de Frades. The Casa da Vidigueira, founded by da Gama, remained in the same family until the twentieth century.

TRAVEL Da Gama's most famous travels were his three voyages to India. His first voyage (1497-1499) took him from Lisbon around the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut, establishing the longest ocean voyage ever made at that time. His second voyage (1502-1503) was primarily focused on consolidating Portuguese power and exacting revenge on Calicut. His third and final voyage in 1524 was as Viceroy of Portuguese India. His routes included stops at the Cape Verde Islands, various points along the African coast, and multiple Indian ports including Calicut, Cochin, and Goa.

Malabar Coast of India showing the path of Vasco da Gama's 4th India Armada in 1502

DEATH Vasco da Gama died on December 24, 1524, in Cochin, India. He had arrived in India in September 1524 as the appointed Viceroy and Governor of Portuguese India but fell ill shortly after arrival, possibly from malaria or the cumulative effects of his arduous journeys. He was initially buried in the Church of São Francisco in Cochin. In 1539, his remains were returned to Portugal and reinterred in the Mosteiro de Jerónimos in Lisbon.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Vasco da Gama has been the subject of numerous books, documentaries, and educational materials. 

Most famously, he is the central heroic figure in Luís Vaz de Camões's epic poem "Os Lusíadas" (1572), which chronicles the Portuguese discoveries.

Other notable works include The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama by Sanjay Subrahmanyam, which provides a comprehensive analysis of his life and legacy. 

There are children's books about his explorations, educational videos documenting his voyages, and academic journals containing first-hand accounts of his expeditions. 

The opera L’Africaine by Giacomo Meyerbeer is about Vasco da Gama, but with a heavy dose of romanticized fiction. The storyline is about two women who loved him, and his voyage to a fictionalized "Africa" that may actually be Madagascar. It premiered on April 28, 1865, at the Paris Opéra (Palais Garnier)

He has appeared in historical dramas and documentaries about the Age of Discovery. Examples include Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992, where he is a minor character) and various documentary series on exploration.

The Vasco da Gama Memorial in Durban commemorates his South African landing. 

The Vasco da Gama Bridge in Lisbon, opened in 1998, commemorates the fifth centenary of his arrival in India.

ACHIEVEMENTS First to establish a sea route from Europe to India.

Opened trade routes that enriched Portugal immensely.

Undermined Arab and Venetian spice monopolies.

Laid foundations for the Portuguese Empire in Asia.

Elevated to nobility and given the hereditary title of Count of Vidigueira.

Celebrated in Portugal as a national hero.

Source (1) How Stuff Works

Francis Drake

NAME Francis Drake

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Francis Drake was an English sea captain, privateer, naval officer, and explorer. He is best known for leading the second successful circumnavigation of the globe (1577–1580) and for his role in defeating the Spanish Armada in 1588.

BIRTH Francis Drake was born around 1540 at Crowndale Farm, near Tavistock, Devon.

FAMILY BACKGROUND He was the oldest of twelve sons born to Reverend Edmund Drake, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. Edmund Drake was a tenant farmer and a Puritan cleric. 

CHILDHOOD The Drake family lived in poverty during Francis's childhood3. When Francis was about 8 or 9 years old, the family fled from Devon to Kent due to religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549. There, his father ministered to sailors while the family lived in a leaky, cut-down ship. This unusual upbringing gave young Francis early experience in handling estuaries and coastal navigation.

EDUCATION Drake received a practical education in seamanship. His father arranged for him to be apprenticed to a neighbor, the master of a barque engaged in coastal trade with France. His skill and dedication impressed his master so much that, upon his death, he left the ship to Drake.

CAREER RECORD Apprenticed to a master of a coasting vessel who left him his ship at his death. 

1567 Given first command on the "Judith" part of a squadron of vessels on an ill-fated slave trading voyage in the Gulf of Mexico.

1570-71 Two trading voyages to the West Indies.

1572 Commanded two vessels in marauding expedition against Spanish ports in the Caribbean Sea.

1573-76 Sent to Ireland to quell rebellion.

1577-80 Sailed round the world

1581 Mayor of Plymouth

1584-85 Represented Bosinney in parliament.

1585 Made more raids against Spanish settlements in the West Indies

1588 Vice admiral of the English fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada.

1589-95 Returned to Parliament

1595 Sent on another expedition against the Spanish forces in the West Indies.

APPEARANCE Francis Drake was a man of medium stature, possessing a stocky and robust build. He sported brown or blonde hair and a full, red beard. His eyes were described as round, large, and clear, and he had a fair and cheerful countenance.  

Marcus Gheeraerts Francis Drake 1591

FASHION Drake's appearance was further enhanced by his fashionable attire.  Portraits reveal him clad in elegant clothing typical of his era.  He often wore a pale-colored satin doublet with slashed sleeves, combined with a bright red cape, jerkin, and hose.  A lace ruff typically adorned his neck. The use of expensive dyes, such as cochineal for his red garments, underscored Drake's wealth and social standing.

CHARACTER Drake was bold, ambitious, and fiercely determined. He was known for his leadership skills, tactical brilliance, and ruthless approach to naval warfare. He was also deeply religious, seeing his battles against Spain as part of a divine mission.

The ruthless commander was known to the Spanish as "El Draque" (The Dragon).

SPEAKING VOICE Drake’s voice was reported to be strong and authoritative, well-suited to command. His ability to inspire loyalty among his men played a significant role in his success.

Sir Francis Drake was noted at the Court of Queen Elizabeth for his strong Devon accent.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Drake was known for his wit and charm, qualities that made him both an effective leader and a captivating figure at court. He enjoyed playing practical jokes on his crew and was known to jest even in the face of danger. One legend claims that while playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe in 1588, he remarked that there was plenty of time to finish before setting sail to fight the Spanish Armada.

Drake informed about the approach of the Armada By Lobsterthermidor at en.wikipedia 

RELATIONSHIPS Francis Drake married Mary Newman on July 4, 1569, at St Budeaux Church near Plymouth147. Mary was about 17 years old at the time, while Drake was 24. The marriage took place shortly after Drake returned from a disastrous voyage to Mexico.

The pattern of their marriage was set early on, with Drake frequently away at sea. Mary often stayed with her parents in Saltash while Drake was on his voyages. Despite Drake's long absences, the couple grew increasingly wealthy due to his successful privateering activities. 

The marriage lasted about 12 years, until Mary's death in January 1583. Drake and Mary did not have any children.

Francis Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham on June 18, 1583, just six months after losing his first wife. The wedding took place at Monksilver Church, which is located about half a mile north of Combe Sydenham Hall in Somerset, England. The ceremony was performed by Mr. Barret, Archdeacon of Exeter. Drake was in his early forties at the time, while Elizabeth was about 20 years old.

Elizabeth was the only child and heiress of Sir George Sydenham, a wealthy landowner and Justice of the Peace. Drake's marriage to Elizabeth elevated his social standing, but they had no children. 

Elizabeth Sydenham Lady Drake by Georg Gower

Drake's close relationships with fellow seafarers, such as Sir John Hawkins, were instrumental in his success.

MONEY AND FAME Drake became one of the wealthiest men in England after circumnavigating the globe (1577–1580), capturing Spanish treasure along the way. Queen Elizabeth I personally knighted him on April 4, 1581 aboard the Golden Hind, cementing his fame. However, his wealth made him a target for Spanish hostility, and King Philip II of Spain allegedly placed a bounty on his head.

Image y ChatGBT

FOOD AND DRINK Francis Drake's crew, particularly during his historic circumnavigation, enjoyed a more diverse diet than most sailors of the 16th century.  While staples like ship's biscuit (hardtack), beer, and salted meats (beef and pork) formed the foundation of their meals, Drake prioritized procuring fresh provisions at every landfall.  This resulted in a significantly expanded menu.

Their diet included a variety of fruits and vegetables, such as citrus fruits, figs, grapes, coconuts, plantains, and lemons, along with various herbs.  Protein sources were also diverse, ranging from fish and goats to wild hens, seals, elk, sea birds, and even large crayfish.  At different stops, they acquired local foods like squaw potato (a vital source of vitamin C), sago meal (rich in ascorbic acid), and spices such as nutmeg, ginger, and long pepper, as well as rice.  While beer was their primary beverage, Drake also stocked wine, brandy, and rum.

Drake's concern for his men's health was evident in his consistent efforts to secure fresh supplies.  This varied diet, particularly the inclusion of vitamin C-rich foods, likely played a crucial role in preventing scurvy, a common scourge of long sea voyages.  Compared to the typical sailor's rations of primarily salted meat, ship's biscuit, and beer, Drake's crew enjoyed a far richer and more nutritious menu, featuring tropical fruits, diverse fish, and even unusual meats like penguins and seals.  This attention to diet, combined with Drake's proactive approach to resupplying, contributed significantly to the relatively good health of his crew throughout their arduous circumnavigation.

On board the Golden Hind in the Pacific, Drake ate from “silver dishes with gold borders and gilded garlands,” and enjoyed “all possible dainties and perfumed waters.” Violas were played as he took his meals.

Drake introduced potatoes to England from Colombia, but the English were initially wary of the strange tuber, dismissing it as unhealthy. He also brought back exotic spices and other New World crops, which intrigued the English aristocracy. (1)

MUSIC AND ARTS While Drake himself was not a musician, he traveled with painters on the Golden Hind who documented landscapes in great detail, possibly as navigational aids. Francisco de Zarate wrote that Drake had aboard The Golden Hind  “painters who paint the landscape in its proper colors,” apparently making a kind of picture-book cartographic record that Drake or other mariners could follow around South America.

 Drake himself sometimes embellished his log with pictures of sea lions, birds, and trees. (2)

LITERATURE A deeply religious man, Drake carried Foxe’s Book of Martyrs with him on his voyages, a text detailing Protestant suffering under Catholic rule. This book reinforced his belief that he was waging a holy war against Spain.

NATURE Drake was an observant sailor with a fascination for the natural world. His logs included sketches of sea lions, exotic birds, and unfamiliar plant species encountered on his travels. He also studied the winds and currents, using this knowledge to his advantage in navigation.

PETS It was common for ships in Drake's era to carry animals, including dogs and parrots, as mascots or companions. 

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Aside from his naval pursuits, Drake enjoyed the gentlemanly pastime of bowls. The famous story of him finishing a game before facing the Spanish Armada demonstrates both his composure and love for leisure.

Drake informed about the approach of the Armada By Lobsterthermidor at Wikipedia

SCIENCE AND MATHS Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe was not just a feat of seamanship but also one of mathematics and astronomy. He relied on advanced navigational techniques, using instruments such as the astrolabe to chart his course across the oceans.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY The Protestant Francis Drake's religious fervor was a driving force in his life and voyages. Evidence of this deep faith can be seen in his actions, such as conducting Protestant services in San Francisco Bay during his circumnavigation—considered the first such services in America.

This religious dimension was also evident in the broader context of the Anglo-Spanish rivalry.  While Philip II of Spain sought divine intervention for his Armada, complete with a papal license to depose Queen Elizabeth I, whom he termed "The Dragon of Heresy," and a fleet carrying 600 priests and monks with strict moral codes for the sailors and soldiers, the English, too, believed they had God on their side, along with superior ships.

Drake's personal faith was particularly intense.  Raised with a profound aversion to Roman Catholicism, he saw himself as a righteous counter to what he perceived as Spanish wickedness.  Onboard the Golden Hind in 1579, he demonstrated this conviction by holding daily prayer services and even occasionally delivering sermons to his crew.

POLITICS Drake was an influential figure in Elizabethan England, serving as Mayor of Plymouth in 1581. He also sat in Parliament multiple times, including as an MP for Bossiney in 1584 and Plymouth in 1593. Though primarily a naval figure, he played a role in shaping England’s military and colonial policies.

SCANDAL Francis Drake was considered a pirate by the Spanish, who offered a hefty reward of 20,000 ducats for his life, a sum worth approximately £4,000,000 ($6.5 million) in today's money. His exploits were viewed as scandalous by Spain, who saw his actions as attacks on their empire and treasure fleets.

Francis Drake was involved in the massacre of approximately 600 people on Rathlin Island off the Antrim Coast in July 1575, despite their surrender. This event is considered one of the most brutal episodes in the conflict between English forces and the Scottish and Irish inhabitants of the region during the 16th centuy.

MILITARY RECORD The name "El Draque," the Spanish bogeyman, remained a chilling threat for naughty children well into the late 19th century.  This enduring fear stemmed from the real-life exploits of Francis Drake.  His history of conflict with Spain began in 1567 and 1572, accompanying Sir John Hawkins on plundering expeditions in the Spanish Main.  From these experiences onward, Drake was firmly established as a Spanish adversary.

Forewarned of rumors regarding a planned Spanish invasion of England, Drake took preemptive action.  In a bold move, he raided Cadiz on April 29, 1587, burning over 30 ships and 10,000 tons of shipping, effectively delaying the Armada's launch by a year.  This daring raid prompted his famous quip, "I have singed the Spanish King's beard."  His circumnavigation of the globe further cemented his reputation, including the capture of a Spanish treasure ship and the suppression of a mutiny in Patagonia.

When the Spanish Armada finally arrived, Drake served as second-in-command to Lord Howard of Effingham.  The English fleet, with its superior maneuverability and tactics, decimated the Spanish Armada, losing no ships while the Spanish lost roughly half of their 130 vessels.  The Armada's misfortune was compounded by a severe storm in the English Channel, which proved disastrous for the Spanish fleet.

Picture below shows Admiral Pedro de Valdés surrendering his sword to Francis Drake aboard Revenge during the attack of the Spanish Armada, 1588. Oil on canvas by John Seymour Lucas (1889)

Later, commanding 150 ships and 18,000 men, Drake attacked and nearly destroyed the Spanish port of La Coruna.  His subsequent attempt to take Lisbon, however, was unsuccessful.  Finally, in 1595, on his last expedition to the Caribbean with Hawkins, he captured Nombre de Dios on the north coast of Panama but failed to seize Panama City.

Drake's audacity extended to the Isthmus of Panama.  In early 1572, with Queen Elizabeth's blessing, he recruited runaway slaves to attack a gold-laden mule train, returning to England with a substantial treasure.  

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS  Francis Drake maintained good health and fitness throughout much of his life, which was essential for his career as a sailor and explorer. However, like many sailors of his time, Drake eventually succumbed to disease. He died of dysentery  at the age of about 56, during a failed expedition to Panama. This illness was a common affliction among sailors due to poor sanitation and limited access to clean water during long voyages.

Drake co-founded with Sir John Hawkins the Chatham Chest for disabled seamen, a charitable insurance scheme towards which each seaman contributed 6d per month. From this developed the Greenwich Hospital. 

HOMES Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, likely in a modest home befitting his family's status as farmers and shearmen.

In the early 1570s, Drake lived in Plymouth, probably in a substantial house on Looe Street. This property included a house and garden, which he later leased out.

After his successful circumnavigation voyage , Drake purchased Buckland Abbey in Devon in 1581. This Grade I listed 700-year-old house became his primary residence3. Drake bought the abbey using a fraction of the treasure from his voyage, making him one of the richest men in England5.

Buckland Abbey remained in the Drake family until 1946 when it was acquired by the National Trust. Today, it serves as a museum showcasing Drake's life and adventures, featuring artifacts such as a statue of Drake and a picture of his ship, The Golden Hind. The famous drum he left behind, which could be sounded in times of need, remains on display at the abbey today.

Buckland Abbey By Hpschaefer - Wikipedia

TRAVEL Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the globe, though ultimately a resounding success, began as an unintended consequence. Setting sail in December 13, 1577, his expedition was initially planned as a voyage to the Pacific.  However, fate intervened when the Golden Hind (originally named the Pelican), a 75-foot vessel, became separated from the other ships in his fleet while rounding Cape Horn.  One ship was lost, and another was forced to return to England, leaving Drake and the Golden Hind to continue the journey alone.  Drake himself often navigated the treacherous waters around the cape in a small sailing boat, demonstrating his exceptional seamanship.

Pressing northward along the coasts of Chile and Peru, Drake eventually reached California.  On June 17, 1579, he claimed San Francisco for England, naming it New Albion.  The local Native Americans, believing the English to be divine beings, offered them their entire territory.  Drake, accepting this symbolic gesture, formally claimed the land in Queen Elizabeth's name, marking the occasion by erecting a post with an engraved metal plate.  Today, a National Park in San Francisco marks the approximate location where the Golden Hind anchored.

From New Albion, Drake steered southwest, rounding the Cape of Good Hope and finally reaching Plymouth, England, on September 26, 1580. His triumphant return was marked by Queen Elizabeth I knighting him aboard the Golden Hind at Deptford on April 4, 1581. Undoubtedly, the substantial treasure he brought back, valued at approximately £1 million, played a significant role in the Queen's decision.

Francis Drake in the Strait of Magellan by Thomas Somerscales

DEATH In 1596, Drake fell ill with yellow fever and dysentery during his final expedition to the West Indies. In his delirium, he insisted on dressing in his armor, wanting to die like a warrior. He passed away soon after on January 27, 1596. His body was placed in a lead coffin and dropped into the sea off Portobelo. Panama. His passing marked the end of an era for England’s most famous privateer.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Drake has been depicted in various films, books, and television series, often portrayed as a heroic explorer and pirate. His famous circumnavigation and his attacks on Spanish possessions continue to capture the imagination of audiences around the world.

1. Literature

The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake (1589) – One of the earliest accounts of his journey, written by Richard Hakluyt.

"Drake’s Drum" (1897, poem by Henry Newbolt) – A famous English patriotic poem about his legend, suggesting he will return to defend England in times of need.

Historical novels – Various authors, including C.S. Forester (The Earthly Paradise) and George Malcolm Thomson (Sir Francis Drake), have fictionalized his adventures.

2. Film & Television

Drake of England (1935, film) – A British historical drama featuring Drake’s role in the Spanish Armada.

Sir Francis Drake (1961–62, TV series) – A British series starring Terence Morgan as Drake, focusing on his naval exploits.

Seven Seas to Calais (1962, film) – Rod Taylor portrays Francis Drake. Queen Elizabeth I tells him, "No man has ever saved the Queen more truly than you."

Elizabeth: The Golden Age (2007, film) – Though not a major character, Drake is depicted as part of Queen Elizabeth I’s defense against Spain.

Documentaries – Numerous history documentaries, such as BBC's Armada: 12 Days to Save England, have explored his life.

3. Music

The Youngbloods – "On Sir Francis Drake" (1969) – A song from Elephant Mountain referencing the explorer.

4. Video Games

Uncharted series (2007–present) – Nathan Drake, the protagonist, is a fictional descendant of Francis Drake, and the games reference the real Drake’s expeditions.

Sid Meier’s Pirates! (1987, 2004) – Players encounter historical figures like Drake in this swashbuckling strategy game.

Assassin’s Creed IV: Black Flag (2013) – The game includes references to Drake’s travels and artifacts.

ACHIEVEMENTS First Englishman to circumnavigate the globe.

Played a crucial role in the defeat of the Spanish Armada.

Raided Spanish possessions and disrupted their trade routes, contributing to England's rise as a naval power.

Brought immense wealth and prestige to England.

Sources(1) Food For Thought by Ed Pearce (2) Encarta Encyclopedia

Hernán Cortés

NAME Hernán Cortés

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large parts of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century

BIRTH Hernán Cortés was born in 1485 in Medellín, in the southeast of Extremadura, southwestern Spain.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Cortés was the only child of Martín Cortés, a military captain in the infantry, and Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, he was a second cousin of Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of the Inca Empire in Peru.

CHILDHOOD Little is known about Cortés' early childhood, but his family background was modestly noble, and they envisioned a future for him in law or the church.

EDUCATION Cortés studied law at the University of Salamanca like his grandfather. However, in 1501, he abandoned his studies to the disappointment of his parents to pursue a life of exploration and adventure.

CAREER RECORD Cortés initially worked as a soldier and farmer before sailing under Diego Velázquez to help conquer Cuba in 1511. 

1504 Makes first trip to the West Indies (Santo Domingo)

1511 Elected alcalde, a sort of mayor/judge of Santiago the then capital of Cuba.

1519  Led the famous 1519 expedition to Mexico, culminating in the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. 

1522 Promoted to Governor and Captain-General of Mexico after the sacking of Tenochtitlan.

1526 Sacked as governor of Mexico so ruthless are his methods and spent the remainder of his life pleading his cause.

1530 Returned to Mexico as Captain General

1541 Cortés returned to Spain, 

APPEARANCE Cortés's appearance evolved over time. In his youth, he was reportedly pale and delicate. However, as he matured and embarked on his legendary conquests, his physical appearance transformed, mirroring his growing power and influence.

He possessed a well-proportioned, sturdy physique and a face that could convey both warmth and severity. His hair and beard, though sparse, were a deep, inky black. His complexion, often described as somewhat pale, lent him an air of seriousness. The Aztecs initially perceived him as a divine figure.

18th-century portrait of Cortés based on the one sent by the conqueror to Paolo Giovio,

FASHION As a Spanish conquistador and later, Governor of New Spain, Cortés adhered to the fashion of the time. He likely wore a doublet, breeches, a cape, and a hat, often adorned with feathers. His attire, like his demeanor, was a reflection of his high social status.

Cortés destroyed the Aztec fashion industry, replacing jaguar skins and feathered cloaks with European textiles. He introduced silk production to the Americas.

CHARACTER Cortés was ambitious, determined, and ruthless. He was also deeply religious, carrying a statuette of the Virgin Mary at all times and attending Mass daily.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Historical records do not emphasize Cortés' sense of humor, but his sharp wit likely aided his political and military maneuvers.

RELATIONSHIPS Hernán Cortés was married twice during his lifetime: Cortés married Catalina Suárez (also known as Catalina Xuárez or Juárez) in Cuba around 1516. This marriage was initially reluctant on Cortés's part and occurred under pressure from Governor Diego Velázquez. The couple remained childless, and Catalina's death in 1522 under mysterious circumstances marked the end of their union.

In 1529, Cortés married Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana de Zúñiga, the niece of the Duke of Bejar. This marriage produced three children: Don Martín Cortés, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca, Doña María Cortés and Doña Catalina Cortés.

Sculpture of Juana de Zúñiga for her tomb by CarlosVdeHabsburgo

Beyond his formal marriages, Cortés had several significant relationships:

La Malinche (Doña Marina): He had a son named Martín Cortés, often referred to as "El Mestizo", by his Indian noblewoman, counsellor and translator, the beautiful Dona Marina who had been taken prisoner. She became his constant companion and her information, translations and advice were invaluable to Cortés. 

Isabel Moctezuma: Another domestic partner mentioned in historical records.

Cortés's marital and romantic relationships were integral to his personal life and political career, influencing his social status, alliances, and legacy both in the New World and Spain. His complex network of relationships, including his connections to Indigenous women, shaped his experiences and actions during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.

He left his many Indian and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers.

MONEY AND FAME Originally seeking his fortune in gold, Cortés became wealthy through the conquest of Mexico, earning titles such as Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. Despite his riches, he spent later years pleading for recognition from the Spanish crown.

Cortés, once a formidable conquistador and a symbol of Spanish power in the New World, met a tragic end, dying in poverty and debt. Despite his early successes and the vast wealth he had amassed, his later years were marked by financial hardship, legal battles, and disillusionment.

One of the primary factors contributing to Cortés's decline was his mounting debt. In 1524, he wrote to King Charles V, confessing to owing over 500 ounces of gold, a significant sum at the time. This debt, coupled with his dwindling financial resources, forced him to take desperate measures, such as pawning his wife's jewelry to fund his later expeditions.

In addition to his financial woes, Cortés was plagued by endless legal battles that consumed his time, energy, and resources. These legal disputes, combined with the loss of royal favor, further eroded his wealth and status. As a result, he found himself increasingly isolated and marginalized, his once-promising future fading into obscurity.

Cortés participated in the unsuccessful Spanish expedition against Algiers in 1541, losing much of his remaining wealth and experiencing shipwreck. He died in poverty in 1547 and his tragic end serves as a stark reminder of the impermanence of wealth and power, and the harsh realities of life for even the most celebrated figures.

Cortés' infamous quote to the Aztecs, "We suffer from a disease of the heart which is only cured by gold," encapsulates the European obsession with wealth that fueled the Age of Exploration. This insatiable greed, shared by figures like Pedro de Cieza de León, who was inspired by the sight of Inca gold in Seville, ultimately led to the exploitation and suffering of countless Indigenous peoples.

FOOD AND DRINK Hernán Cortés introduced several elements of Aztec culture to Spain. One such import was a drink known as "chocolati," made from cacao beans, which the Aztecs called "xocati." Originally, this drink was spiced with chili and musk, a flavor profile that Cortés initially found unappealing. However, by 1527, he had grown to appreciate the beverage and kept a chocolate pot on his desk.

With the addition of sugar, vanilla, and cinnamon, the drink was transformed into a sweet and aromatic beverage that quickly became a favorite among the Spanish aristocracy. It is likely that Cortés also introduced the Spanish to tortillas, a staple food of the Aztec diet.

Another significant introduction was the vanilla bean. The Aztecs regarded vanilla as a sacred and divine plant, with legends tracing its origins back to the early days of the world when gods still walked the earth. According to one myth, the goddess Xanat, in love with a Totonac youth, transformed herself into a vanilla vine to remain on Earth with him and his people. Cortés sent a consignment of these precious vanilla beans back to Spain, where they would eventually become a prized ingredient in European cuisine and perfumery.

MUSIC AND ARTS Cortés was focused on practical matters related to colonization and expansion of Spanish influence rather than artistic or cultural pursuits.

LITERATURE Cortés authored Letters to Charles V (Cartas de Relación), detailing his conquests, which are key historical documents. 

The Conquest of Mexico (1843) is a landmark historical work by William H. Prescott, which romanticizes and dramatizes Cortés’ campaign.

Captain from Castile (1945) is a historical novel by Samuel Shellabarger featuring a fictionalized depiction of Cortés and his exploits.

Cortés and Montezuma (1990) is a children’s book by Seymour Rosenthal, which narrates the conquest for a younger audience.

NATURE He introduced European agricultural practices to the Americas, including silkworm farming and vine cultivation.

PETS Cortés horses, vital to his conquest, were his closest animal companions. When Cortés's horse, El Morzillo, fell ill in 1524, he was left with the Maya Indians. Unfamiliar with horses, the Maya revered the majestic creature as a divine being. They had never seen a horse before the arrival of the conquistadors, who were accustomed to riding deer.

Similarly, the Aztecs were awestruck by the sight of Cortés and his mounted soldiers. The sight of men riding colossal, armored beasts struck fear and awe into the hearts of the Aztec warriors. They believed these mounted soldiers to be divine beings, a belief that contributed to their initial hesitation to resist the Spanish advance.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Cortés' main pursuits were exploration and military campaigns rather than recreational hobbies.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Cortés relied on advanced European navigation and military technology, introducing these innovations to the Americas.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Cortés was a devout Catholic who sought to convert indigenous peoples, often by force. Upon arriving in Vera Cruz, Mexico, Cortés was initially greeted as a god by the Aztec emperor Montezuma. The Aztecs believed that their god, Quetzalcoatl, had vanished across the Atlantic and was prophesied to return in the year Cortés arrived. This belief, coupled with Cortés's arrival by sea and his fair skin and beard, led the Aztecs to mistake him for the returning deity.

The Aztec religion relied heavily on human sacrifice to appease their gods. It's estimated that around 1% of their population of 250,000 people were sacrificed annually, with the victims' limbs often cooked and consumed as part of the ritual.

In contrast to the Aztecs' bloody practices, Cortés presented himself as a devout Christian. He claimed to be an ambassador of the Spanish king, sent to spread the true religion and end the practice of human sacrifice. Despite his deceitful intentions, Cortés was genuinely devoted to the Virgin Mary and carried a statue of her at all times. He was known to pray daily and attend Mass regularly.

POLITICS Cortés played a pivotal role in expanding Spanish influence, laying the groundwork for colonial governance in Mexico.

SCANDAL Hernán Cortés's conquest of the Aztec Empire, while a remarkable feat of military strategy, was often brutal and exploitative.

1. Betrayal and Violence: Initially welcomed by the Aztec emperor Montezuma, Cortés soon revealed his true intentions. After receiving lavish gifts of gold and other treasures, he responded with acts of violence, using cannons and crossbows against the unarmed Aztecs.

2. Massacre and Flight: In a particularly heinous act, Cortés's deputy, Pedro de Alvarado, orchestrated a massacre of hundreds of unarmed Aztec nobles during a religious festival. This betrayal led to the infamous "Noche Triste," when the Spanish were forced to flee Tenochtitlan under the relentless attacks of the enraged Aztecs.

3. Ruthless Pursuit of Gold: Cortés's obsession with gold led to countless atrocities. He tortured the captured Aztec emperor Cuauhtémoc, forcing him to reveal the location of hidden treasure. This act of cruelty, along with other violent excesses, tarnished Cortés's reputation and haunted him for the rest of his life.

4. Decline and Madness: As his power waned and his reputation suffered, Cortés became increasingly paranoid and unstable. He embarked on a reckless expedition to Honduras, further alienating his supporters and damaging his health. His final years were marked by legal troubles, financial ruin, and a descent into madness.

Cortés's legacy is a complex one, marked by both extraordinary achievements and horrific acts of violence. His story serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked power and the destructive consequences of greed and cruelty.

MILITARY RECORD In 1511, Cortés demonstrated his military prowess by participating in the Spanish conquest of Cuba.

In 1519, with a small force of 650 men, 16 horses, and limited weaponry, Cortés embarked on his expedition to Mexico. To prevent retreat and instill a sense of determination, he famously ordered his ships burned upon landing. The Aztecs, unfamiliar with such advanced weaponry and tactics, were no match for the Spanish and their Native American allies. Cortés forged an alliance with the Tlaxcalans, a powerful indigenous group who provided him with a significant number of troops, ultimately swelling his army to an estimated 80,000 to 200,000 soldiers.

After a grueling four-month siege, Cortés and his army captured the magnificent city of Tenochtitlan in 1521. By blockading the city by land and water, the Spanish deprived the Aztecs of vital resources, including drinking water. The fallen Aztec capital was then rebuilt as Mexico City, the foundation of Spanish colonial rule in the region.

 The 1521 Fall of Tenochtitlan by Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés, 

Following his conquest of the Aztec Empire, Cortés spent the years between 1530 and 1540 consolidating Spanish control over Mexico. He established a colonial administration and engaged in various expeditions to explore and subdue other parts of the region.

In 1541, Cortés returned to Spain, where he participated in a naval campaign against the Barbary pirates in Algiers. He later led an expedition to the Yucatán Peninsula to conquer the Maya civilization.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS The Spanish conquest of Mexico brought not only military conflict but also devastating disease. Cortés and his men inadvertently introduced smallpox, measles, and influenza to the indigenous population, who had no immunity to these foreign pathogens. By 1545, these diseases had decimated the native population, reducing it from an estimated 25 million to a mere 2 million.

Despite the destruction and suffering he caused, Cortés also made some positive contributions to the region. In 1523, he established a hospital in Mexico City, which remains the oldest hospital in the Western Hemisphere. This institution provided healthcare to both the Spanish colonists and the indigenous population, marking a significant step in the development of medical infrastructure in the region.

Despite his active life, Cortés suffered injuries and pleurisy, which ultimately contributed to his death.

HOMES Spain (1485-1504): Cortés was born and raised in Medellín, Extremadura, Spain. He left his homeland in 1504 to seek fortune in the New World.

After conquering the Aztec Empire, Cortés built his capital, Mexico City, on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. He destroyed Aztec temples and replaced them with Christian churches.

In 1526, Cortés built an imposing residence for himself in Cuernavaca, a region close to the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings.

Cortés was granted the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca in 1529, which included vast lands in the broad fertile plains of southern Mexico. 

After being neglected by the court following the 1541 Algiers expedition, Cortés retired to a small estate. .

TRAVEL Hernán Cortés undertook several significant voyages and expeditions during his lifetime:

In 1504, at age 19, Cortés sailed from Spain to the New World, settling in Hispaniola.

In 1511, he joined Diego Velázquez's expedition to conquer Cuba.

On February 18, 1519, Cortés embarked on his most famous expedition, sailing from Cuba to the Yucatán Peninsula with 11 ships and over 500 men. After landing in Mexico, Cortés marched inland towards Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, arriving there on November 8, 1519. He was welcomed by Aztec ruler Montezuma II, who mistakenly believed Cortés was a god. It paralyzed him and his Aztec army until it was too late. and the pair exchanged gifts. Montezuma gave Cortés the gift of an Aztec calendar, one disc of crafted gold and another of silver. Montezuma brought Cortés to his palace where the Conquistador and his fellow Spaniards lived as his guests for several months. 

Cortés and La Malinche meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan, November 8, 1519.

In 1520, Cortés briefly left Tenochtitlán to confront a Spanish force sent to arrest him, before returning to the Aztec capital.

In 1524, Cortés led an expedition to Honduras to quell a rebellion against his authority.

In 1536, Cortés explored northwestern Mexico, including Baja California and Mexico's Pacific coast. This was his last major expedition.

Throughout these travels, Cortés demonstrated his ambition, military skill, and determination to expand Spanish control in the Americas, culminating in his conquest of the Aztec Empire and the establishment of New Spain.

DEATH Hernán Cortés died from a case of pleurisy on December 2, 1547, aged 62, in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Spain. His final resting place, however, has been the subject of much historical intrigue and controversy.

After his death, Cortés's body was moved multiple times, reflecting the changing political and social climate of the era. Initially buried in Seville, his remains were later transferred to Mexico. Over the centuries, they were exhumed, reburied, and hidden, often due to shifts in public opinion and political turmoil.

In the 19th century, as anti-Spanish sentiment grew in Mexico, Cortés's remains were hidden to protect them from desecration. It wasn't until 1946 that his final resting place was definitively identified. Today, his tomb, marked by a simple plaque, lies within the Church of the Immaculate Conception and Jesus Nazareno in Mexico City.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Cortés' exploits have inspired numerous historical works, novels, and portrayals in films and television, often emphasizing his dramatic role in history.

1. FILM AND TELEVISION 

Captain from Castile (1947) A historical drama based on Samuel Shellabarger’s novel, featuring a fictionalized version of Cortés during the conquest of Mexico.

The Other Conquest (1998) (La Otra Conquista) A Mexican film exploring the aftermath of the Spanish conquest, where Cortés is a central figure.

Conquistadors (2000) A BBC documentary series by Michael Wood, in which Cortés’ life and campaigns are examined in detail.

Hernán (2019) A Spanish-language series on Amazon Prime that dramatizes the life of Hernando Cortés, offering a nuanced view of his character and the conquest of the Aztec Empire.

OTHER “La Conquista de México” is an opera by Wolfgang Rihm, premiering in 1992, which explores the psychological and cultural dimensions of the conquest, featuring Cortés as a key figure.

The Mexican artist Diego Rivera depicted Cortés in his works, such as the murals at the National Palace in Mexico City, where he portrays the conquistador as both a hero and a controversial figure.

Cortés is featured in campaigns in the video game Age of Empires II focusing on the conquest of Mexico, with players assuming his role.

“Cortés the Killer” (1975) is a song by Neil Young, written as a critique of colonialism and conquest, metaphorically referencing Cortés' actions.

ACHIEVEMENTS Cortés conquered 315,000 square miles of America in total, defeating the Aztecs, seizing southern and central Mexico and later subjugating Guatemala and Honduras to Spanish rule.

He introduced European agriculture and livestock to the Americas, and played a foundational role in Spanish colonialism.