Christopher Columbus

NAME Christopher Columbus

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Columbus is famous for his transatlantic voyages under the Spanish crown, leading to European awareness and exploration of the Americas. His 1492 expedition, landing in the Bahamas, marked the first enduring connection between Europe and the Americas.

BIRTH Born in Genoa, Italy, sometime before October 31, 1451, Columbus’s birthplace is now a historic site.

FAMILY BACKGROUND He was the son of Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver and tavern owner, and Susanna Fontanarossa. Columbus had three younger brothers, Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo, and one sister, Bianchinetta. His family was modestly middle-class.

CHILDHOOD Growing up in Genoa, Columbus experienced a simple life, helping in his father’s businesses, which included wool weaving and running a cheese stand.

He developed an obsession with the sea from a young age. Columbus began his sailing career as a teenager, reportedly going to sea for the first time at the age of 14

EDUCATION Columbus's family was of limited means, which restricted his formal education. He likely received a basic education in Latin and mathematics until the age of 14. However, his true learning began after his teenage years when he embarked on his maritime career. 

After arriving in Portugal, Columbus learned to read and write, and he absorbed the latest navigational and trading techniques from the Portuguese. Between 1470 and 1474, he collaborated with his brother Bartolomeo to delve deeper into the study of cartography.

CAREER RECORD Columbus began sailing young, with his first documented voyage to the Island of Chios in the Aegean. 

After a shipwreck in Portugal in 1476, he swam to shore and settled in Lisbon. There he worked as a cartographer with his brother Bartholomew. 

Columbus’s historic voyages began in 1492 when Spain backed his westward journey to find a route to the Orient.

APPEARANCE Christopher Columbus was described as a man of imposing stature for his time. He was well-built with a long face and high cheekbones. His complexion was fair, often reddening, and he was known to have freckles. His eyes were light-colored, possibly blue, gray, hazel, or green. A distinctive feature was his aquiline nose.

In his youth, Columbus had fair or light-colored hair, which turned completely white by the age of 30. While some accounts mention him sporting a beard, others do not.

It's important to remember that no authentic contemporary portraits of Columbus exist. Our understanding of his appearance is based on written descriptions from those who knew him, such as his son Ferdinand and Bartolomé de las Casas. Many later depictions, including the famous portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, may not accurately reflect his true appearance.

Posthumous portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519

FASHION Columbus dressed in the practical attire of sailors,  a woolen or linen shirt, breeches, and a heavy coat. However, his portraits often idealize him in more formal or noble clothing.

CHARACTER Determined and ambitious, Columbus was a fervent believer in his mission and driven by both religious and financial motivations. He displayed a confident, sometimes stubborn, nature.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Columbus displayed cunning and resourcefulness, particularly in his dealings with indigenous peoples, as when he used his knowledge of an eclipse to obtain provisions from natives in Jamaica.

RELATIONSHIPS Christopher Columbus married Filipa Moniz Perestrelo in 1479 in Vila Baleira on Porto Santo Island, Madeira, Portugal. She was a Portuguese noblewoman from a family with maritime connections. Through this marriage, Columbus gained access to valuable navigational charts and knowledge. They had one son together: Diego Columbus. He became the 2nd Admiral of the Indies, 2nd Viceroy of the Indies, and 4th Governor of the Indies

Filipa Moniz Perestrelo died sometime between 1479 and 1484. After her death, Columbus moved to Spain and began a relationship with Beatriz Enríquez de Arana,  a woman of lower social standing. They had a son: Fernando Columbus (also known as Ferdinand), born on August 15, 1488, who became a bibliographer and cosmographer.

Beatriz remained a significant figure in Columbus's life and was well-provided for in his will. Both Diego and Ferdinand would later play crucial roles in defending and promoting their father's legacy.

Ferdinand Columbus

MONEY AND FAME Columbus was driven by a combination of factors: a desire for wealth, fame, and the opportunity to expand the Christian faith. He proposed a daring plan to the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, to find a westward route to the lucrative spice trade of the East Indies.

Initially, the monarchs were hesitant to invest in this risky venture. However, they eventually agreed to fund the expedition, providing Columbus with the necessary resources. The Spanish Crown's investment proved to be highly profitable, yielding significant returns in gold and other riches from the New World.

Columbus' first voyage in 1492 made him famous across Europe. News of his voyage spread rapidly, with printed versions of his letter about the journey appearing almost immediately after his return to Spain

Despite his initial successes, Columbus's later years were marked by misfortune and disappointment. The Spanish Crown stripped him of his governorship and confiscated his rights to the New World. He spent much of his remaining years in legal battles, fighting for recognition and financial compensation.

Although he died a relatively wealthy man, his legacy was tarnished by controversy and his final years were overshadowed by financial hardship and legal disputes.

FOOD AND DRINK Columbus's voyages were often plagued by food shortages and poor quality provisions. His crews subsisted on a diet of salted meat, fish stews, hard biscuits, and watered wine. On his fourth voyage, conditions deteriorated further, forcing the crew to resort to worm-infested biscuit porridge.

Columbus played a role in introducing several important crops to Europe and the Americas. He brought sugar cane to the West Indies, laying the foundation for the region's sugar industry. He also introduced tobacco, cocoa beans, and potatoes to Europe, although the latter two crops took centuries to gain widespread acceptance.

One of the most significant agricultural discoveries made by Columbus was maize, or corn. Native Americans introduced Columbus to this versatile grain, which would eventually become a staple food in many parts of the world.

Additionally, Columbus brought orange, lemon, and citron seeds to the Caribbean, contributing to the region's diverse agricultural landscape.

During his fourth voyage, Columbus faced a critical food shortage while stranded in Jamaica. He cleverly used his knowledge of an upcoming lunar eclipse to intimidate the local inhabitants into providing food and supplies.

His encounters with the indigenous populations of the Americas also exposed him to their culinary practices, including the use of chili peppers and the consumption of human flesh in certain rituals.

MUSIC AND ARTS As someone who had access to the Spanish royal court, Columbus would have been exposed to various forms of art and music that were popular among the nobility.

LITERATURE Columbus was a voracious reader, particularly interested in geographical and theological texts. His extensive reading likely influenced his belief in the possibility of a westward route to Asia.

To maintain morale among his crew during his first voyage, Columbus kept two sets of logs: one accurate log for his own records and another, more optimistic log to reassure his crew about their proximity to land. Despite these efforts, tensions arose among the sailors, who were growing increasingly anxious.

An account of Columbus's 1492 voyage was quickly published in Basel in 1493, generating significant interest and excitement.

A particularly important text in Columbus's library was Marco Polo's Book of the Wonders of the World. This 1485 Italian edition, filled with Columbus's personal notes and annotations, provided valuable geographical information that likely guided his expeditions. It is believed that Columbus may have carried this book with him on his voyages. He likely acquired the book as a gift from an English merchant in 1497 and consulted it extensively while preparing for his third voyage to the Americas.

Columbus's copy of The Travels of Marco Polo, with his handwritten notes in Latin written in the margins

Columbus's letters about his voyages became popular reading across Europe. 

Washington Irving’s 19th century biography later mythologized Columbus, portraying him as a hero who disproved the flat-earth theory.

NATURE Columbus’s voyages introduced Europe to the fauna and flora of the Americas. His explorers discovered maize in Cuba, which became a major staple worldwide.

During his first transatlantic voyage, Columbus employed a clever strategy inspired by the Portuguese discovery of the Azores. By observing the flight patterns of migrating birds, he hoped to follow a natural route across the ocean.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Sailing was both Columbus's career and passion, and he was always eager to explore new routes.

Columbus was deeply interested in navigation and map-making. He spent years studying navigation techniques and geographical knowledge of his time.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Columbus had a strong interest in astronomy, navigation, and cartography. He used his knowledge of these subjects to plan and execute his voyages.

During his fourth voyage, Columbus found himself stranded in Jamaica. With dwindling supplies and a hostile population unwilling to trade, he faced a desperate situation. However, Columbus possessed a secret weapon: knowledge.

Consulting his Zacuto almanac, he learned that a lunar eclipse would occur on February 29, 1504. Summoning the Jamaican chiefs, Columbus boldly declared that he could control the celestial bodies. He warned them that if they did not provide food and supplies, he would invoke his divine power to blot out the moon.

The chiefs, initially dismissive, were stunned when the eclipse began as predicted. Fear gripped the islanders as the moon darkened. Desperate to appease the mysterious white man, they agreed to provide the necessary provisions.

When the eclipse ended, Columbus emerged as a celestial deity, saving his crew from starvation and securing their survival on the island.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Christopher Columbus, a lay Franciscan monk, grounded his calculations for his 1492 voyage in Biblical scripture, particularly the books of Esdras from the Apocrypha. His religious faith was a significant driving force behind his exploration.

Upon landing on San Salvador, Columbus named it "Saint of Salvation" to express his gratitude for reaching land safely. This naming choice reflects his deep religious beliefs and his view of his journey as a divinely ordained mission.

Despite the widespread superstition that Friday was an unlucky day for seafaring, Columbus defied tradition and set sail on a Friday. His first voyage also concluded on a Friday, when he sighted land. This coincidence further solidified his belief in the divine favor guiding his expedition.

On January 6, 1494, Columbus and his crew landed at Isabela on the island of Haiti. They gathered in a makeshift church, where they attended the first mass ever celebrated on the American continent, led by Fray Buil.

Columbus's voyage was motivated by both religious and economic goals. He sought to spread Christianity to the pagan peoples of the East and to bring wealth to the Spanish crown. To aid in the conversion of these "Eastern" peoples, he included a converted Jew who spoke Arabic, mistakenly believing it to be similar to Chinese. Additionally, a group of Franciscan missionaries accompanied the expedition, quickly initiating the conversion of the Native American populations.

As Columbus aged, his religious fervor deepened. He claimed to hear divine voices, advocated for a new crusade to recapture Jerusalem, and often wore the Franciscan habit. He interpreted his discoveries as part of God's grand plan, believing they heralded the impending Last Judgment and the end of the world.

POLITICS  Columbus managed complex relationships with Spain’s royalty and navigated delicate treaties with Portugal. He served as governor of Hispaniola but was later removed for his harsh governance.

On his return voyage from his first journey, Columbus was forced to seek shelter in Lisbon due to severe weather. This allowed King John II of Portugal to learn of his discoveries before the King of Spain. The Portuguese immediately claimed rights to all lands west of Africa. The Pope, Alexander VI, a Spaniard, intervened and granted Spain dominion over all lands 300 miles west of the Azores, essentially claiming all of America. This decision, based on the disputed Donation of Constantine, sparked tensions between Spain and Portugal. To avoid conflict, the two nations eventually agreed to a revised treaty that gave Portugal the easternmost portion of America.

SCANDAL In his early career, Columbus engaged in piracy.

In 1495, Columbus led a group of 1,200 colonists to Hispaniola. However, he proved to be an ineffective governor. Disappointed by the lack of gold, he grew frustrated with the indigenous people, imposing a system of forced labor on the Taíno Indians to cultivate sugarcane. This brutal treatment, combined with the introduction of European diseases, led to a devastating decline in the indigenous population of Hispaniola. Between 1492 and 1510, the Taíno population plummeted from an estimated 300,000 to a mere 25,000.

Columbus faced scandal due to his brutal treatment of natives and governance on Hispaniola, resulting in his return to Spain in chains.

In recent decades, Columbus's legacy has been tarnished. He is often portrayed as a figure who brought disease and exploitation to the Americas. The devastating impact of European colonization, which led to the decimation of indigenous populations, is now widely recognized.

MILITARY RECORD Columbus was a naval mercenary in the service of Rene D'Anjou, king of Naples in 1472-73. 

Columbus led expeditions to the Americas that included violent confrontations with indigenous groups, often in pursuit of wealth for Spain.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Columbus's voyages to the Americas inadvertently introduced a new disease to Europe: syphilis. This sexually transmitted infection is believed to have originated in the Caribbean and was spread by the sailors who returned from the New World.

In his later years, Columbus's health deteriorated. He suffered from severe arthritis and a debilitating illness, likely Reiter's syndrome, which caused joint pain, eye inflammation, and skin rashes.

HOMES After a shipwreck off the coast of Portugal, where a French ship sank his vessel, Columbus swam ashore, clinging to an oar. He was taken in by the local inhabitants and settled there in 1476.

During his return voyages from the Americas, Columbus often stayed in Los Palmas, in the Canary Islands, while his ships were being refitted. The house where he resided has been preserved as a museum.

Columbus spent his final years in a modest home in Valladolid, Spain.

TRAVEL Before embarking on his historic voyages, Columbus gained experience through various maritime endeavors. He visited England in 1477, where he likely heard tales of lands far to the west. He also explored Iceland in the 1480s and possibly West Africa in 1482.

A pivotal moment in Columbus's life occurred in 1476 when his ship was attacked by French privateers off the Cape of St. Vincent. After swimming six miles to shore, he experienced the perils of the open sea firsthand.

First Voyage (1492-1493): On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos, Spain, aboard the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. After a perilous voyage, he landed on an island in the Bahamas on October 12, dubbing it San Salvador. He became the first European to step foot on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic) on December 5, 1492, and explored both Hispaniola and the island of Cuba, mistakenly believing them to be part of Asia. The Santa Maria was shipwrecked, but Columbus returned to Spain on the Niña.

Second Voyage (1493-1496): Columbus led a larger expedition with 17 ships and over 1,500 people. He explored the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, which he first sighted on November 18, 1493, and Jamaica. Columbus established the first permanent European settlement in the New World, Isabella, on Hispaniola.

Third Voyage (1498-1500): Columbus sailed south, discovering the island of Trinidad and the South American mainland. Due to various challenges, including a mutiny, he was arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.

Fourth Voyage (1502-1504): Columbus explored the coast of Central America, reaching Honduras and Nicaragua. He was shipwrecked in Jamaica and endured a difficult year before being rescued.

Despite his significant contributions to exploration, Columbus's legacy is complex. He never actually reached mainland North America or set foot on South America until his third voyage. His belief that he had discovered a route to Asia led to numerous misconceptions about the geography of the New World.

DEATH Columbus died on May 20, 1506, in Valladolid, Spain. He had suffered from a long-term illness that first showed symptoms during his third voyage, eight years before his death.

While his son Fernando attributed the cause to "gout," recent research suggests it was likely Reiter's Syndrome, a rare tropical disease.

Columbus was initially buried in a small cemetery in Valladolid. Shortly after, his body was moved to Seville. Columbus's eldest son Diego was later buried beside his father in Seville. In 1537 both bodies were moved to the cathedral in Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (now Dominican Republic).

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Columbus's story has been retold in literature, films, and documentaries, with Washington Irving’s 19th-century writings elevating his myth. They include: 

1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992): Directed by Ridley Scott, this film portrays Columbus’s 1492 voyage to the Americas, starring Gérard Depardieu as Columbus. It captures the ambition and conflicts surrounding his journey, although it faced criticism for historical inaccuracies.

Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992): Another 1992 release, this film directed by John Glen and starring Georges Corraface as Columbus, was intended as a celebration of the 500th anniversary of his journey but received mixed reviews.

Columbus appears in various animated series like The Simpsons and South Park, usually satirically, critiquing or commenting on colonialism and its impacts.

Today, his role is examined critically, balancing exploration with impact on indigenous peoples. 

ACHIEVEMENTS Columbus’s most notable achievement was his 1492 journey, linking Europe and the Americas. He introduced new foods like maize to Europe, and his voyages changed global trade and geopolitics forever.

Columbus Day is celebrated on the second Monday of October in the United States. The first celebration of Columbus Day in the USA held in was held in New York on October 12, 1792.