Catherine the Great

NAME Catherine II, commonly known as Catherine the Great

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Catherine the Great was one of Russia's most powerful and influential rulers. She reigned for 34 years (1762-1796) and oversaw significant reforms and territorial expansion. She is often compared to Peter the Great for her role in modernizing Russia.

BIRTH Catherine the Great was born as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst on May 2, 1729, in Stettin, Prussia (now Szczecin, Poland).

FAMILY BACKGROUND Catherine was born into the minor German nobility. Her father, Christian August, was the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and her mother, Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, was a member of a prominent German noble family. Although her family was not wealthy, they were well-connected, which played a significant role in her eventual rise to power.

CHILDHOOD Catherine's childhood was marked by a strict and somewhat lonely upbringing. Her mother was ambitious and pushed her daughter towards a future of high standing, while her father was more reserved and practical. Catherine's early life was disciplined, and she was groomed for a role in European royalty.

EDUCATION Catherine received an excellent education for a girl of her time, including instruction in history, languages, literature, and religion. She was particularly adept at languages, becoming fluent in French, German, and Russian, which later helped her navigate the complexities of Russian court life.

CAREER RECORD Catherine's career began when she married the future Emperor Peter III of Russia in 1745. After a turbulent relationship with her husband, she orchestrated a coup in 1762, leading to his deposition and her ascension to the throne. Her reign was characterized by significant reforms in government, law, and education, as well as a considerable expansion of the Russian Empire.

Catherine the Great was not a tsar. She was an empress. The title of "tsar" was used for male rulers in Russia, while "empress" was used for female rulers.

APPEARANCE Catherine the Great possessed a regal bearing, with a lofty brow and a pair of piercing, yet playful, blue eyes. In her youth, her thick chestnut hair framed an elfin face, accentuated by deep blue eyes, a healthy complexion, and a full, red-lipped smile. Her slender figure, reminiscent of a teenager, was complemented by a remarkably graceful posture that made her appear taller than she actually was.

However, as she aged, her appearance underwent a dramatic transformation. The once lithe figure gave way to a more substantial form, often described as "grossly fat." Her doctor’s advice to improve her health seemed to fall on deaf ears, as she embraced a barrel-shaped physique that was far from the ideal for an empress. Despite her physical changes, Catherine retained a playful spirit, even demonstrating a unique ability to wiggle her ears.

Below is a portrait of the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna (the future Catherine the Great) around the time of her wedding, by Georg Christoph Grooth, 1745

FASHION Catherine was known for her elegant but practical sense of fashion.  She often wore military-inspired attire during her reign to emphasize her power and authority. Catherine often wore elaborate gowns and jewelry.

Catherine the Great, ever mindful of her public image, took drastic measures to quell rumors about her dandruff. After discovering flakes on her collar, she had the audacity to imprison her hairdresser for a full three years!

In the mid-1700s, Catherine and other European monarchs received a unique fashion update: miniature versions of Madame Pompadour's latest wardrobe, sent directly from Versailles every five years. These fashion dolls served as a sartorial blueprint, inspiring local dressmakers to create their own interpretations of the French queen's stylish ensembles.

CHARACTER Catherine was intelligent, ambitious, and strong-willed. She possessed a keen mind and was deeply interested in Enlightenment ideas, which influenced many of her policies. Despite her ruthlessness in securing and maintaining power, she was also known for her wit and charm.

She spoke Russian with a German accent studdered with mispronounced words

SENSE OF HUMOUR Catherine had a sharp sense of humor, often displaying it in her writings and correspondence. She enjoyed satire and was known to use humor to diffuse tense situations or to subtly critique her opponents. She was known for her witty remarks and her ability to laugh at herself.

RELATIONSHIPS Catherine the Great’s reputation was somewhat tarnished by her penchant for younger lovers, a practice known as "toy boyaring." Her romantic escapades, which included a 22-year-old lover at the age of 60, were the subject of much gossip across Europe. And while she was not particularly fond of single beds, it was her marriage to the uncouth, drunkard, and erratic Russian Grand Duke Peter that truly raised eyebrows.

Catherine’s marriage to Russian Grand Duke Peter was arranged by Tsarina Elizabeth, who saw Sophie (Catherine’s birth name) as the perfect wife for her nephew. 

Before their wedding on August 21, 1745, Catherine was so naïve that she reportedly didn’t understand the difference between a man and a woman. Peter, a deeply unbalanced individual, humiliated and neglected her, wasting countless hours playing with toy soldiers on the floor. Their marriage was never consummated.

Despite ruling for six months, Peter III was never crowned before his murder on July 17, 1762. His coffin remained uncrowned for 35 years until it was finally opened for that purpose.

Tsar Peter III and his wife, the future Catherine the Great. by Georg Cristoph Grooth

A defining characteristic of Catherine’s reign was the significant influence wielded by her lovers, or "favorites." Ten men held this semi-official position, with Grigori Orlov and Grigori Potemkin playing particularly pivotal roles in shaping foreign and domestic policy.

Catherine had three robust sons with Gregory Orlov and an earlier son, Paul. Her second child, Anne, born in 1757, sadly passed away in 1758. Another son, Alexander I, was born in 1762.

Paul, whom Catherine did not particularly favor, may have been fathered by Peter or by one of Catherine’s lovers, with Serge Saltykov and Grigori Orlov being the most likely candidates. Paul eventually succeeded Catherine to the throne as Paul I of Russia.

Grigori Potemkin, Catherine’s chief advisor for two decades, was a colorful figure. Despite his boorish demeanor, potbelly, and discolored complexion, he distinguished himself in his dealings with Turkey, securing control of Crimea and strengthening Russia’s naval power. A former monk, Potemkin was known for his excessive drinking and his grotesque facial tic. Yet, his intelligence and strategic acumen overshadowed his physical flaws.

Potemkin was called by Catherine "my marble beauty", "golden rooster" and "wolfbird" among other terms of endearment.

During their long relationship, Catherine and Potemkin each took on other lovers. Catherine’s choices were often suggested by Potemkin to keep her entertained during his absences. One such lover, rumored to have been Catherine’s secret husband, was a witty, gifted mimic named "The Clown."

She was advised by Casanova on her dating technique:, no, it's not what you think - the notorious Venetian recommended to her how to reform the calendar.

MONEY AND FAME Catherine was immensely wealthy, largely due to the vast resources of the Russian Empire. She used her wealth to fund various projects, including the arts, education, and military campaigns. 

As the consort to the childish Grand Duke Peter, Catherine gained plenty of supporters by her readiness to accept Russian customs as her own.

After becoming Empress of Russia, Catherine's fame spread across Europe, making her one of the most celebrated monarchs of her time.

FOOD AND DRINK Catherine had a modest appetite and preferred simple Russian dishes, though she also enjoyed the occasional indulgence in French cuisine. She was not known to be a heavy drinker, preferring wine in moderation.

Catherine maintained her own hothouses in which fresh vegetables and fruit were grown at substantial expenses throughout the long frozen Russian winter." 

MUSIC AND ARTS Catherine was a great patron of the arts, supporting musicians, composers, and artists throughout her reign. She corresponded with many leading intellectuals and artists of the time.

Catherine was a woman of many talents, dabbling in both writing and theater. A passionate devotee of Italian music, she played a pivotal role in preserving Russia’s rich musical heritage. Under her reign, the earliest printed editions of native Russian folk music were introduced, a testament to her cultural interests.

Despite her love for music, Catherine was notoriously tone-deaf. Her singing performances, while enthusiastic, were far from harmonious.

A keen collector of antiques and paintings, Catherine amassed a vast collection, including the renowned collection of Sir Robert Walpole. To house her treasures, she established the Hermitage in Leningrad, a retreat that eventually evolved into one of the world’s most celebrated art museums.

Catherine's collection also included a remarkable set of earthenware, considered the most celebrated of its kind. This service, now housed in the Hermitage, consisted of 952 pieces crafted by Josiah Wedgwood’s company. Each piece bore Catherine’s green frog emblem and featured intricate depictions of English landscapes, all enameled in sepia.

LITERATURE Catherine the Great was a trailblazer in many ways, including her adoption of the fountain pen. The concept of a pen with an internal ink reservoir had existed since the 10th century, and likely that she had access to one of the early, experimental models of fountain pens, possibly a custom-made device

A woman of letters, she corresponded with the renowned philosopher Voltaire and hosted a literary salon at her court, welcoming writers and philosophers from across Europe.

Her love of books was legendary, and her personal library was her pride and joy. As Catherine herself wrote to Voltaire in 1746, "Since that period I have been under the greatest obligations to you. Before that period I read nothing but romances ... I have ... no desire for books less well written than yours."

In addition to her voracious reading habits, Catherine also penned her own works, including comedies, fiction, and memoirs.

NATURE Catherine had a deep appreciation for nature, often spending time in the gardens of her palaces. She had a country estate at Tsarskoye Selo, where she often retreated for relaxation.

Catherine took such a liking to a primrose in the palace garden that she ordered a sentry to guard the plant day and night.

Catherine and Potemkin traveled in grand style, accompanied by a portable garden carried by their serfs. This mobile oasis was set up at each night’s stop, providing a touch of luxury and comfort amidst their travels.

Catherine supported agricultural improvements in Russia and was interested in the natural sciences.

PETS Catherine was fond of animals and kept several pets throughout her life, including dogs, cats, and birds. Her favorite pet was a little dog named Zemira.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Catherine enjoyed horseback riding, hunting, and reading. She was an avid reader, often spending hours in her private library. Her interest in sports was mainly focused on equestrian activities, which she practiced regularly.

An equestrian portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna from before 1749

SCIENCE AND MATHS Catherine had a keen interest in science, particularly in the fields of medicine and technology. She encouraged scientific exploration and founded the Free Economic Society to promote agricultural and industrial advancements in Russia.

Casanova visited Russia in the 1760s and had the opportunity to meet Catherine the Great. During their correspondence, one of the topics they discussed was the calendar. At that time, Russia was still using the Julian calendar, which was increasingly out of sync with the Gregorian calendar adopted by much of Western Europe.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY  Upon marrying Grand Duke Peter, Catherine embraced the Russian Orthodox faith and was rechristened Catherine. Despite her religious affiliation, she maintained an enlightened outlook, patronizing prominent figures of the Enlightenment such as the rationalist Diderot and Voltaire. While she abhorred profanity in her presence, her personal life was as pure as a driven snow mobile.

In 1764, Catherine took a drastic step, confiscating the lands of the Russian Orthodox Church. This controversial move solidified her power and increased her control over the nation.

Midway through her reign, Catherine composed her own epitaph, expressing her desire to "do good and strive to introduce happiness, freedom, and prosperity." However, her views on liberalism evolved over time. Following the French Revolution, she became increasingly critical of liberal attitudes, suggesting a shift in her political philosophy.

POLITICS Catherine's political philosophy was rooted in Enlightenment ideals, and she sought to modernize and westernize Russia. She implemented a series of legal and administrative reforms, expanded the empire, and worked to strengthen the central authority of the monarchy. Her reign is often seen as the height of the Russian autocracy.

SCANDAL Catherine's personal life was the subject of numerous scandals, particularly due to her numerous lovers and the circumstances surrounding her rise to power. Rumors and gossip were rife, and her relationships often overshadowed her political achievements in the eyes of her critics.

Six months after her husband, Peter, ascended to the throne in 1762, Catherine allegedly orchestrated his demise. According to historical accounts, Peter met a tragic end during a dinner party, succumbing to injuries sustained in a scuffle. Grigori Orlov, a key figure in the coup that brought Catherine to power, is believed to have delivered the fatal blow with a footstool.

While the exact circumstances of Peter’s death remain a subject of debate, the coup that ousted him was widely popular among the masses. The ex-czar was deeply unpopular, and the cheering soldiers who supported Catherine affectionately referred to her as "little mother."

Catherine II on a balcony of the Winter Palace on 9 July [O.S. 28 June] 1762, the day of the coup

MILITARY RECORD Catherine's reign saw significant military successes, including the expansion of Russian territory through victories in wars against the Ottoman Empire and the partitions of Poland. She reformed the Russian military, making it one of the most powerful in Europe.

In 1764, Catherine installed her former lover, Stanislaus Poniatowski, as King of Poland. However, when Poniatowski began advocating for Catholic and political reforms, Catherine’s support waned. She sent troops to quell the unrest, resulting in a brutal massacre of 20,000 Catholics and Jews. In retaliation, Polish rebels carried out their own atrocities, slaughtering an estimated 200,000 people within three weeks.

Catherine’s meddling in Poland provoked a response from the Ottoman Empire, which declared war on Russia in 1768. Despite initial setbacks, the Russian army ultimately prevailed, occupying Moldavia in 1769 and inflicting a devastating defeat on the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Cesme in 1770.

In 1771, Russia annexed Crimea, a move that prompted an alliance between Turkey and Austria to force Russia to relinquish her conquests. However, Catherine’s determination prevailed, and in 1783, Crimea was officially annexed into the Russian Empire.

The Treaty of Constantinople in 1784 recognized Russia’s conquest of Crimea, solidifying her territorial gains. Catherine’s expansionist ambitions also led to a conflict with Sweden, which declared war on Russia and invaded Finnish territory in 1788. Despite facing initial challenges, Russia ultimately emerged victorious, sinking the Swedish fleet and forcing Sweden to accept the Treaty of Verela in 1790, which resulted in Russia gaining a portion of Finland.

Catherine’s aggressive foreign policy continued in 1793, when she carried out the second partition of Poland alongside Prussia, further expanding Russia’s territory and weakening Poland’s sovereignty.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Catherine generally enjoyed good health for most of her life, though she became more sedentary in her later years. She was conscious of her physical appearance and took measures to maintain her health, including regular horseback riding and baths.

Voltaire suggested that Catherine consult with the renowned Quaker and inoculator Thomas Dimsdale to protect herself and her son from smallpox. Dimsdale successfully administered the smallpox vaccine to both Catherine and her son, as well as to 200 other Russians.

As a sign of her gratitude, Catherine ordered the parents of the first child patient to re-christen their son "Vaccinoff," a name honoring the groundbreaking procedure. This gesture served as a public endorsement of the vaccine and helped to promote its wider adoption in Russia.

HOMES  The Hermitage, located adjacent to the Winter Palace, served as both a repository for Catherine’s vast art collection and a residence for her family and close associates. Catherine herself resided in the opulent Winter Palace, a sprawling structure boasting 1,000 rooms and a staggering 117 staircases.

For respite from the formalities of court life, Catherine often retreated to Tsarskoye Selo, her beloved neoclassical palace. This serene retreat provided a much-needed escape from the hustle and bustle of the city.

Tsarskoye Selo By Alexander2018 Wikipedia

These residences were opulently decorated and reflected her status as Empress.

TRAVEL Catherine traveled extensively within her empire, often undertaking long journeys to inspect her territories and meet with local leaders. She also planned grand tours of Europe, though these were mostly canceled due to political reasons.

When Catherine embarked on her coronation journey to Moscow, she was accompanied by a grand entourage. The court followed in a procession of 14 large sleighs and nearly 200 smaller ones, creating a spectacle of opulence. Among the sleighs was a miniature palace on runners, complete with a saloon, library, and bedroom.

During a tour of Crimea in 1787, Catherine traveled down the Dnieper River. To impress the empress and conceal the region’s true conditions, Potemkin erected elaborate sham villages along the route. After Catherine’s inspection, these facades were dismantled, revealing the impoverished reality that lay beneath. To maintain the illusion, Potemkin persuaded the peasants to clean their streets, paint their homes, dress in their finest attire, and put on a cheerful facade. Catherine, oblivious to their true plight, was deceived by this carefully orchestrated display.

DEATH Catherine the Great passed away on November 17, 1796, at the age of 67. She succumbed to a stroke while attempting to relieve herself on a chamber pot in her palace at Tsarskoye Selo.

Catherine II of Russia by Johann Baptist von Lampi the Elder Wikipedia

She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, where many Russian rulers are interred.

In her will, she offered a piece of advice to her successors: to avoid consulting "Germans of both sexes." This warning reflected her experiences with foreign advisors and her preference for domestic talent.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Catherine the Great has been depicted in numerous films, television series, and books, often focusing on her political acumen and personal life. She remains a popular figure in popular culture, with portrayals ranging from historical dramas to satirical comedies. They include:

1. LITERATURE Catherine the Great has inspired numerous works of literature, both fiction and non-fiction. Notable books include:

Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman by Robert K. Massie (2011): This biography offers a detailed and sympathetic portrayal of Catherine's life, exploring her personal and political struggles.

The Winter Palace by Eva Stachniak (2012): A historical novel that imagines the life of a young Polish woman who becomes a spy in Catherine's court, offering a fictionalized account of Catherine's early years in Russia.

The Memoirs of Catherine the Great: Catherine herself authored memoirs, providing insight into her thoughts and experiences. These have been published and studied extensively.

2. FILM Catherine's life has been adapted into various films, often focusing on different aspects of her reign or personal life:

The Scarlet Empress (1934): Directed by Josef von Sternberg and starring Marlene Dietrich as Catherine, this film is a highly stylized and visually striking interpretation of Catherine's rise to power.

Catherine the Great (1996): A television movie starring Catherine Zeta-Jones as the young empress. This adaptation focuses on her early years and the coup that brought her to power.

3. TELEVISION Catherine the Great's life has been depicted in several television series, offering more detailed explorations of her character and reign:

Catherine the Great (2019): A four-part miniseries produced by HBO, starring Helen Mirren as Catherine. This series focuses on the latter part of her reign and her complex relationships with those around her, particularly her lover Grigory Potemkin.

Ekaterina (2014-2019): A Russian television series that portrays Catherine's life in three seasons, covering her rise to power, reign, and personal relationships in great detail. It has been praised for its historical accuracy and strong performances.

The Great (2020-2023): A satirical and fictionalized series starring Elle Fanning as Catherine, this Hulu production takes a comedic and irreverent approach to Catherine's life, particularly her early years and her marriage to Peter III. Though not historically accurate, it has been praised for its witty writing and performances.

4. PLAYS Catherine the Great has also been the subject of various stage plays:

The Will of Catherine the Great by George Bernard Shaw (1934): A play that humorously speculates on what Catherine might have left in her will.

The Bloody Reign of Catherine the Great: A dramatic play that focuses on the darker aspects of her reign, exploring themes of power and betrayal.

5. DOCUMENTARIES Several documentaries have been made about Catherine the Great, focusing on different aspects of her life and legacy:

Catherine the Great: Empress of All Russia (2005): A documentary that explores her political achievements and her role in transforming Russia into a major European power.

Catherine the Great: Russia's Greatest Empress (2017): A documentary that delves into her personal life, her lovers, and her influence on Russian culture and society.

6. VIDEO GAMES Catherine the Great has also appeared as a character in video games, particularly in the "Civilization" series:

ACHIEVEMENTS Catherine's achievements include the expansion of the Russian Empire, significant legal and administrative reforms, and the promotion of education, the arts, and science. Her reign is often considered a golden age in Russian history, and she left a lasting legacy as one of the most powerful and enlightened rulers of her time.

Sources: (1) Chronicle of the World (2) The Alarming Story of Medicine by Richard Gordon (3) Table Talk by Derek Nimmo (4) The King's Favour: Three Eighteenth-Century Monarchs and the Favourites Who Ruled Them by JJ Mangan