Henry VI of England

NAME Henry VI of England and (disputed) King of France.

WHAT FAMOUS FOR The pious, gentle king whose troubled reign saw the collapse of English power in France, intermittent bouts of mental illness, and the eruption of the Wars of the Roses. Founder of King’s College, Cambridge, and Eton College.

BIRTH Henry was born on December 6, 1421 at Windsor Castle in Berkshire, England, on the feast of St. Nicholas, patron saint of children. He was baptised by Archbishop Henry Chichele, with his godparents being his uncle John, Duke of Bedford; his great-uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester; and Jacqueline, Countess of Holland. The timing of his birth on St. Nicholas's feast day later influenced his educational foundations, as a school for poor scholars would honor this connection.​

FAMILY BACKGROUND Henry VI was the only child of King Henry V and Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France. His father was the legendary warrior king who won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and secured the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, which made Henry V regent of France and his heirs successors to the French crown.​

His mother Catherine was just twenty years old when widowed and was viewed with considerable suspicion by English nobles as the daughter of the French king. She was prevented from playing a full role in her son's upbringing but later remarried in secret to Owen Tudor, a Welsh courtier, and had two sons by him—Edmund and Jasper Tudor. Henry later gave his half-brothers earldoms, and Edmund's son would become King Henry VII, founder of the Tudor dynasty.​

Through his mother, Henry inherited a troubling legacy: his grandfather Charles VI of France suffered from severe mental illness, sometimes believing himself made of glass or attacking members of his entourage. This genetic inheritance would later manifest in Henry's own mental breakdowns. 

His father Henry V died of dysentery at age thirty-five at Vincennes, France, in August 1422, never having met his nine-month-old son.​

CHILDHOOD Henry's childhood was marked by the unique circumstance of being a crowned king from infancy. On September 1, 1422, the day after his father's death, he became King of England, and on October 21, 1422, King of France upon Charles VI's death. He presided at his first parliament in November 1423, carried in by his retinue; the tale is told that the baby "skreeked" so much on the journey that the party had to pause, continuing the next day when Henry was "merry of cheer."​ (1)

His uncles, John, Duke of Bedford (Regent of France), and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (Protector of England), dominated his minority and engaged in fierce rivalry with the King's great-uncle, Cardinal Henry Beaufort.

Henry remained under his mother's care initially, though Catherine was marginalized due to suspicions about her French loyalties. On November 18, 1423, the infant Henry was brought from Windsor and shown to the assembled Parliament at Westminster. In January 1424, Joan Astley was appointed his nurse with a salary of £40 per year, and in February 1424, Dame Alice Butler was selected to attend his person, with license "to chastise us reasonably from time to time."​ (2)

EDUCATION Henry VI received an excellent education befitting a future king of two realms. From 1428, his principal tutor was Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, who was instructed to "generally nourish [Henry] and draw him to virtues and the eschewing of vices...laying before him mirrors and examples of times past."​ (3)

For the period 1430–1432, Henry was also tutored by the physician John Somerset, whose duties were "to tutor the young king as well as preserv[e] his health." Somerset remained within the royal household until early 1451 when the Commons petitioned for his removal because of his alleged "dangerous and subversive influence over Henry VI."​

Henry proved an intelligent and precocious student with a particular passion for studying religion and the humanities, which later influenced his kingship as a devoted Christian and pacifist. He received several lavishly illuminated volumes to aid his education, including a beautiful prayerbook presented to him on Christmas Eve 1430 by his aunt Anne, Duchess of Bedford. 

Henry was described as "clearly very erudite, learned, and educated" and "committed himself to study and academic pursuits." His educational interests shaped his greatest lasting achievements—the founding of educational institutions that continue to flourish today.​ (4)

CAREER RECORD Reigned as King of England: 1422–1461, 1470–1471.

Disputed King of France: 1422–1453, though by his 1431 coronation, much of France had been reclaimed by Joan of Arc and the French armies.

APPEARANCE Contemporary accounts describe Henry VI as having a gentle, passive appearance that reflected his character.  He was often described as pale, thin, and melancholy-looking. Chroniclers emphasised his saintly, non-martial bearing.

John Blacman, Henry's chaplain, recorded that Henry often appeared "wont almost at every moment to raise his eyes heavenward like a denizen of heaven or one rapt, being for the time not conscious of himself or those about him, as if he were a man in a trance, or on the verge of heaven." His supporters perceived this introspective behavior as a sign of holiness rather than illness.​ (3)

When Henry's remains were exhumed in 1910, they revealed a dismembered skeleton with some bones still bearing grave wax. Hair was found still attached to the skull, described as "brown in colour, save in one place where it was much darker and apparently matted with blood," suggesting evidence of a violent death.​ (5)

Illuminated miniature of Henry VI of England

FASHION Henry VI was notably indifferent to royal splendor in his dress, in sharp contrast to the magnificence expected of medieval monarchs. Contemporary John Blacman recorded that Henry was criticized within his lifetime for his lack of grandeur in clothes and often dressed simply "like a farmer."​ 

The National Portrait Gallery's analysis of Henry's portrait revealed that he wore a blue tunic, an unusual choice for a king in the fifteenth century. Blue was "principally a colour worn by working people and young apprentices, and it faded quickly." This confirmed contemporary accounts about his physical appearance and preference for modest attire, reinforcing the image of a king who rejected ostentation.​ (6)

Henry's simplicity in dress reflected his broader asceticism and rejection of worldly grandeur. While other monarchs used magnificent clothing as symbols of power and authority, Henry dressed in a manner that emphasized his religious devotion over his royal status.

CHARACTER Henry VI is consistently described as pious, meek, gentle, kind, charitable, and chaste. He was genuinely devoted to religion and peace, to the point that he was viewed as wholly unsuited for the demands of medieval kingship. He was docile and lacked the will and ruthlessness needed to control his powerful magnates, which contributed to political instability. He was better suited for a religious life, with some historians suggesting he would have been happier as a monk or bishop

Tudor historian Polydore Vergil described Henry as "a man of mild and plain-dealing disposition who preferred peace before war, quietness before troubles, honesty before utility and leisure before business...there was not in this world a more honest and a more holy creature." He possessed "honest shamed-facedness, modesty, innocency and perfect patience."​

Henry was noted for being extravagant, credulous, over-merciful and compassionate to those at fault. In 1438, his own council protested at his granting pardons without any regard to the type of crime committed. His excessive clemency was seen as a failure of royal duty.​

SPEAKING VOICE Henry's most notable characteristic was his tendency to remain completely unresponsive for extended periods, particularly during his mental breakdowns. During council meetings, he demonstrated a pronounced silence that troubled his advisors, and his "willingness to forgive and accommodation of his political adversaries" stemmed partly from his reluctance to speak decisively.​ (3)

SENSE OF HUMOUR Henry VI's serious, devotional nature and his periodic mental incapacity left little room in the historical record for observations about humor or levity.

Chroniclers noted that his greatest oaths consisted of mild phrases like "forsooth and forsooth" and an occasional "St. John," and nothing roused Henry to profanity.

RELATIONSHIPS Henry married Margaret of Anjou on April 22, 1445 at Titchfield Abbey. Margaret was the daughter of René I of Anjou, titular King of Naples, and was fifteen years old at the time of their marriage; Henry was twenty-three. The marriage was arranged as part of peace negotiations with France, with William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, standing proxy for the king during the formal betrothal on  May 24, 1444 at Tours.​

Below shows the marriage of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou as depicted in a miniature from an illustrated manuscript of Vigilles de Charles VII by Martial d'Auvergne

Margaret came with a remarkably small dowry of 20,000 francs and the unrealized claim to territories in Mallorca and Menorca. The marriage required the controversial secret cession of Maine to France. Margaret was strong-willed and ambitious, described as "a great and strong laboured woman who spares no pain to sue her things to an intent and conclusion to her power." She was much the opposite of Henry, ready to take decisions and lead, and he was happy to be led by her.​

The couple had one child, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, born on October 13, 1453. Edward's birth came during Henry's first mental breakdown, and the king didn't respond to his arrival. Parliament confirmed Edward as Prince of Wales on March 15, 1454. Edward spent most of his life with his mother and grew into a martial young man; a Milanese ambassador in 1467 wrote that he "already talks of nothing but cutting off heads or making war." Edward was killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury on May 4,  1471, aged seventeen.​ (9)

Contemporary accounts indicate Henry was noticeably uncomfortable around women at court and displayed an aversion to any degree of sensuality or flirtation. He reportedly showed extreme modesty regarding physical matters generally.​

MONEY AND FAME Henry VI was notoriously poor at managing finances, and his excessive generosity with patronage critically weakened the crown. By November 1449, royal debts had reached the staggering sum of £372,000, announced to a shocked Parliament.​

The king had a tendency to issue generous land grants that steadily eroded his income from crown lands over time. His household staff was supposedly limited to 53 knights and esquires, but by 1451 it had swelled to over 300. Henry's financial profligacy meant that by 1450, his government was reduced to mortgaging its future income to meet current debts.​

Henry achieved considerable posthumous renown as a holy figure. Following his death, 174 documented "wonders" were attributed to Henry VI between 1471 and 1500. Pilgrims traveled from as far as Calais, Cornwall, and Northumberland to his burial places. Henry VII campaigned vigorously for his step-uncle's canonization, obtaining a papal bull in 1494 permitting reburial and authorizing investigation of the recorded miracles, though the process stalled during Henry VIII's break with Rome.​

FOOD AND DRINK Henry followed simple, monk-like routines rather than extravagant feasting. Contemporary accounts emphasize that Henry endured "hunger, thirst, mocking, abuse and other hardships in his life" as part of his saintly conduct. (7)

MUSIC AND ARTS Henry VI was a significant patron of religious music and architecture. His educational foundations at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge included provisions for choirs and religious music. King's College was founded with a stipulation for a choir composed of ten secular chaplains, six lay clerks, and sixteen choristers who were to sing daily Matins, Mass, and Vespers.​

Henry's architectural patronage represented his most visible artistic legacy. He continued a career of architectural patronage started by his father, with King's College Chapel and Eton College Chapel representing magnificent examples of late Gothic or Perpendicular-style architecture. King's College Chapel, with its famous fan vaulting, remains one of England's finest medieval buildings. Henry also completed his father's foundation of Syon Abbey.​

LITERATURE The young King was the recipient of several lavishly illuminated volumes to aid his education, including a beautiful prayerbook presented to him on Christmas Eve 1430 by his aunt the Duchess of Bedford. His personal preference was for religious tomes and the historical writings of English priests

Henry became the subject of literature himself, most notably in William Shakespeare's trilogy Henry VI Parts 1, 2, and 3, believed to have been written around 1591. Shakespeare's portrayal emphasizes Henry's piety and unsuitability for kingship, though notably it does not mention the king's madness—considered a politically advisable omission to avoid offending Elizabeth I, whose family descended from Henry's Lancastrian line.​

NATURE Henry spent time at his hunting lodge at Clarendon Palace outside Salisbury, where in the summer of 1453 he suffered his first major mental breakdown. The bucolic setting suggests some appreciation for countryside retreats, though Henry notably did not share his father's martial enthusiasm for hunting.​ His temperament leaned toward cloistered environments.

PETS Records confirm Henry had a falcon and hawk for the aristocratic sport of falconry, but he preferred reading over active hunting.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Unlike his warrior father Henry V, the younger Henry showed no enthusiasm for hunting, jousting, or other aristocratic pastimes typical of medieval kings. His primary interests lay in religious devotions, educational foundations, and charitable works.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Henry VI's interests were predominantly religious and humanistic rather than scientific or mathematical. His educational foundations focused on theology, classical languages, and law rather than natural philosophy or mathematics.

However, the educational curriculum at his foundations would have included some mathematical instruction as part of the medieval quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). King's College, Cambridge was intended to produce theologians and lawyers trained in scholastic methods that incorporated logical reasoning.​

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Henry VI was profoundly devout and pious, practicing the Devotio Moderna, a movement for religious reform that advocated humility, obedience, and inner devotion. He spent time meditating on the sufferings of Christ and staying in monasteries

Theology represented the central intellectual and spiritual focus of his life. His chaplain John Blacman portrayed him as someone who "saw the world as a place of brief sojourn in which to do good, to learn courtesy and to seek God."​ (7)

The king's foundations reflected his theological priorities. Eton College was conceived as "the first pledge of his devotion to God," and King's College was intended to produce clergy and canon lawyers for service to Church and state. All Souls College, Oxford was founded partly as a memorial chapel where fellows would pray for souls of those who had fallen in the French wars.​

REIGN Henry VI’s reign divides rather neatly into a series of episodes, each one more improbable than the last—rather like a miniseries written by someone who keeps losing the script and making up new characters as they go.

Minority Rule (1422–1437) Henry became king at the age of nine months, which is remarkable when you consider that most nine-month-olds are still learning which end of a spoon goes where. The government, understandably, was left to a regency council, with the Duke of Bedford trying to hold on to France while the Duke of Gloucester managed England and quarrelled incessantly with Cardinal Beaufort. Their bickering was so constant you get the impression the English government functioned largely by accident.

In 1431, the English decided it would be splendid to have their baby monarch crowned King of France, On December 16th, they trundled young Henry to Notre-Dame de Paris, where his great-uncle, Henry Beaufort, seized the opportunity not only to perform the coronation but to celebrate part of the Mass as well. This annoyed the Bishop of Paris immensely—there are few things medieval bishops took more seriously than correct liturgical turf.

A mid-15th-century depiction of Henry being crowned King of France at Notre-Dame de Paris 

Personal Rule Begins (1437) At the age of fifteen, Henry declared himself ready to rule, making him the youngest English king since the Norman Conquest to take personal charge. And he really did throw himself into it, signing petitions and warrants with the enthusiasm of someone who has just discovered stationery.

The Suffolk Years (1437–1450) This period might be subtitled “The Rise and Fall of William de la Pole.” Suffolk became Henry’s chief adviser and seemed to have a near-exclusive lease on government decision-making. Among his accomplishments were negotiating Henry’s marriage to Margaret of Anjou in 1445 and handing over the valuable territory of Maine to France—a move about as popular in England as giving away Cornwall would be today.

When England lost Normandy in 1450, the public decided they had had quite enough of Suffolk, and he was murdered. This, it must be said, did little to improve the general mood.

Crisis and Mental Collapse (1450–1461) By now England was losing France at frightening speed, the royal finances were collapsing under a debt of £372,000 (a stupendous sum in the fifteenth century), and the populace rose in Jack Cade’s Rebellion to complain about absolutely everything. Then, in August 1453, Henry suffered a complete mental collapse and became catatonic for roughly eighteen months.

With the king unresponsive and the government essentially melting, Richard, Duke of York, was appointed Lord Protector—an arrangement that was never going to end tidily.

First Deposition (1461) After a series of hard defeats, culminating in the snow-whipped slaughter at Towton in March 1461, Henry was officially deposed by Edward, Earl of March, who became Edward IV. Henry fled north with Margaret, beginning an extended period of exile that was probably not the restful sort.

Readeption (1470–1471) Then came the astonishing twist. Through a spectacular realignment of loyalties—chiefly the unlikely partnership of Margaret of Anjou and her former enemy, the Earl of Warwick—Henry was briefly restored to the throne in 1470.

This second reign lasted only about six months, more of a brief historical cameo really, before Edward IV returned, took back the crown, and brought the whole saga to its grim conclusion.

POLITICS Henry VI's political record was largely one of ineffectiveness and failure. He was unable to govern effectively due to his personality and later, his mental illness. His decisions often alienated powerful factions, leading to a breakdown of law and order and fueling civil strife. His poor political judgment in relying on incompetent or greedy favorites (like Suffolk and Somerset) and his refusal to acknowledge the political necessity of the Duke of York's position directly contributed to the Cade rebellion of 1450 and the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in 1455. 

SCANDAL The major scandals of Henry's reign stemmed from political failures rather than personal misconduct:

The Secret Cession of Maine: In 1445, Henry secretly promised to surrender the strategically important territory of Maine to France as part of his marriage negotiations, confirming this promise in writing at his wife's entreaty. When the English eventually learned of this betrayal, it caused outrage.​

Suffolk's Dominance and Fall: The Duke of Suffolk's unchallenged control over the king and his suspected responsibility for England's failures in France led to his impeachment in 1450. Accusations included conspiracy to destroy Henry and put Suffolk's own son on the throne. Suffolk was murdered at sea while traveling into exile.​

Questions about Prince Edward's Paternity: Rumors circulated questioning whether Henry VI was truly the father of Edward of Westminster, born in 1453. Margaret of Anjou's favorites, Edmund Beaufort and James Butler, were both suspected of having an affair with her. However, Henry accepted Edward as his son.​

Financial Catastrophe: The revelation in 1449 that royal debts had reached £372,000—a staggering sum—scandalized Parliament and contributed to the regime's collapse.​

MILITARY RECORD Henry VI is notable as the first English king who did not actively engage in warfare. His reign saw the complete loss of English possessions in France, reversing all his father's conquests:

Loss of Normandy (1449–1450): Charles VII invaded Normandy and systematically drove out English forces, culminating in the crushing defeat at the Battle of Formigny on April 15, 1450, where the small English field army was "overwhelmed" and fought "until virtually the last man."​ (7)

Loss of Gascony (1451–1453): By 1453, the only English-held territory on the continent was Calais. The loss of Bordeaux in August 1453 ended centuries of English rule in Aquitaine.​

In the Wars of the Roses, Henry was a figurehead; the Lancastrian military effort was led by his wife, Margaret of Anjou. He was captured and imprisoned multiple times. [=

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Henry VI suffered from severe mental illness, most likely inherited from his maternal grandfather Charles VI of France. His first major breakdown occurred in August 1453 at Clarendon Palace, when he "slumped like a sack into a catatonic stupor, his eyes downcast, apparently unable or unwilling to speak or move."​ (10)

This episode lasted approximately 17 to 18 months. During this time, Henry was completely unaware of his surroundings and failed even to respond to the birth of his son Edward in October 1453. He recovered in early 1455, but experienced at least one further breakdown later in his reign.​

By the early 1460s, Henry's bouts of madness were so severe that he was apparently laughing and singing while the Second Battle of St Albans raged.

Historians have debated the nature of Henry's illness. Most conclude he probably suffered from catatonic schizophrenia, a rare and severe mental disorder characterized by extreme disturbances in movement and behavior, including inability to speak, lack of voluntary movement, and stupor. Some historians, including Lauren Johnson, suggest he may have suffered from profound depression rather than schizophrenia.​

Symptoms noted by contemporaries included periods of silence, perceived simplicity and naivety, tiredness, discomfort around women, reported lack of passion, and a pallid appearance. Beyond his mental health challenges, Henry appears to have been physically fit in his youth. 

HOMES Henry VI's principal residences included:

Windsor Castle: Henry was born at Windsor Castle and maintained strong connections to it throughout his life. It was his favorite residence, and he deliberately sited Eton College nearby so he could oversee its development.​

Westminster Palace: The seat of government and Parliament, where Henry conducted official business and held his coronation in 1429.​

Tower of London: Henry was imprisoned here following his captures by Yorkist forces in 1465 and again in 1471. He died in the Tower, traditionally said to have been murdered in the Wakefield Tower, though the official guidebook suggests he was more likely imprisoned in the Lanthorn Tower where the King's lodgings were located.​

TRAVEL Henry VI's most significant journey was his voyage to France for his coronation as King of France. On April 23, 1430, aged eight, Henry embarked from Dover accompanied by Cardinal Beaufort, the Duke of Bedford, and numerous bishops.​

Henry traveled to Paris, entering the city on December 4, 1431 with a glittering procession including twenty-five trumpeters and a guard of between two and three thousand men. He visited the Basilica of St Denis, burial place of French kings and proceeded to Notre-Dame Cathedral for his coronation.​

Following his coronation at Notre-Dame on December 16, 1431, Henry remained in France for some time before returning to England. This French sojourn represented Henry's longest and most significant foreign travel.​

After the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses, Henry spent periods in Scotland during his exile following the Yorkist victory at Towton in 1461. His wife Margaret traveled to France to seek support, and Henry himself lived in obscurity before his capture in 1465.​

DEATH Henry VI died on the night of May 21, 1471 in the Tower of London, almost certainly murdered on the orders of Edward IV. The official Yorkist account claimed he died "of pure displeasure and melancholy" upon hearing of the Yorkist victory at Tewkesbury and the death of his son. However, contemporaries and historians have universally rejected this explanation.​

The Milanese ambassador summarized the general understanding: "King Edward has not chosen to have the custody of King Henry any longer...he has caused King Henry to be secretly assassinated in the Tower." The timing was significant—Henry died the same night that Edward IV made his triumphant entry into London, suggesting a deliberate decision to eliminate the Lancastrian figurehead.​ (5)

Tradition holds that Henry was murdered while praying in the chapel of the Wakefield Tower, struck down in his devotions. Richard, Duke of Gloucester (the future Richard III) was present in the Tower that night, and popular legend attributed the murder to him, though this remains unproven.​

Henry's body was displayed at Old St. Paul's Cathedral and Blackfriars Monastery in London, where Warkworth's Chronicle reports he "bled anew and afresh"—interpreted as evidence of murder. He was initially buried at Chertsey Abbey in Surrey, where his tomb became a popular pilgrimage site. On  August 12, 1484, King Richard III ordered Henry's body exhumed and moved to St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle, where it remains today—ironically opposite the burial site of his rival Edward IV.​

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA William Shakespeare's Trilogy: Henry VI is the central figure in Shakespeare's Henry VI, Parts 1, 2, and 3 (c. 1591), which dramatize the loss of France and the Wars of the Roses. 

Television Adaptations:

An Age of Kings (BBC, 1960): A fifteen-part series that condensed the Henry VI plays into five episodes.​

The Wars of the Roses (BBC, 1965): A Royal Shakespeare Company adaptation directed by Peter Hall and John Barton, condensing the plays into three parts, broadcast to critical acclaim.​​

BBC Television Shakespeare (1983): Jane Howell directed a complete three-part adaptation of Henry VI, with Peter Benson portraying the king.​

The Hollow Crown: The Wars of the Roses (BBC, 2016): A modern television adaptation of Shakespeare's history plays.

Modern Novels: Henry VI features prominently in historical fiction about the Wars of the Roses, including works by Conn Iggulden (Stormbird, Trinity), Philippa Gregory (The White Queen, The Red Queen), and Susan Higginbotham.​

ACHIEVEMENTS Founded King’s College, Cambridge (1441).

Founded Eton College (1440).

Maintained a devout, peaceful style of kingship rare in the medieval world.

His gentle character inspired a long-lasting popular cult.

Sources: (1) Discover Britain (2) Dictionary of National Biography (3) Historic Royal Palaces (4) Friends of Henry VI (5) Susanhigginbottom.com (6) National Portrait Gallery (7) Murreyandblue (8) Ebsco (9) Philippagregory.com (10) New Statesman