Henry I of England

NAME Henry I of England

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Henry I was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and reigned as King of England from 1100 to 1135. He is remembered for his administrative reforms, for strengthening royal justice, and for being one of medieval England’s most intelligent and educated monarchs.

BIRTH Henry was probably born in England in 1068, most likely in September at Selby in Yorkshire, though some sources suggest the birth occurred in the last weeks of the year. He was the only son of William the Conqueror born in England rather than in Normandy. His birth occurred approximately two years after his father's Norman conquest of England in 1066.​

FAMILY BACKGROUND Henry was the fourth and youngest son of William the Conqueror (William I of England, Duke of Normandy) and Matilda of Flanders. His mother was the granddaughter of King Robert II of France, and she probably named Henry after her uncle Henry I of France. 

He had three older brothers: Robert Curthose (the eldest), Richard (who died in a hunting accident around 1074), and William Rufus (later William II of England). He also had several sisters, including Adela, who was close to him in age.

The family was part of the Anglo-Norman ruling class established after the Conquest, with extensive lands on both sides of the English Channel.​

CHILDHOOD Very little documentary evidence exists for Henry's early years. Historians Warren Hollister and Kathleen Thompson suggest he was brought up predominantly in England, while Judith Green argues he was initially raised in the Duchy of Normandy. 

Henry would have seen relatively little of his older brothers due to their age differences and Richard's early death. There is evidence that he was close to his sister Adela, as the two were similar in age. 

When his mother Matilda died in 1083, she left him lands worth more than £300 a year; however, records show this inheritance was stolen from him by his older brothers. As the youngest son, Henry received no significant inheritance when his father died in 1087—while Robert Curthose inherited Normandy and William Rufus received England, Henry was left with only money and no lands.​

EDUCATION Henry received an unusually thorough education for a royal prince of his era, possibly because he was not initially expected to inherit a throne. He was probably educated by the Church, possibly by Bishop Osmund, the King's chancellor, at Salisbury Cathedral. It remains uncertain whether this indicated his parents intended him for the clergy. 

William of Malmesbury and Ordericus Vitalis independently testified that Henry was literate and well-educated in the liberal arts, and law making him probably better educated than any previous English king except Alfred the Great. He was better educated than his brothers and felt at ease in the company of learned men, earning the nickname "Beauclerc" (the learned or good scholar). 

He also received military training from an instructor called Robert Achard and was knighted by his father on May 24, 1086.​

CAREER RECORD 1100 Henry  seized the English throne in 1100 upon the death of his brother, William II. 

1106 He defeated his eldest brother, Robert Curthose, at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106, reuniting the English and Norman domains under his sole rule. 

APPEARANCE Physically, Henry resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose, Richard, and William Rufus  The contemporary chronicler William of Malmesbury provided this description: "He was of middle stature, his hair was black, but scanty near the forehead; his eyes were mildly bright, his chest brawny, his body well fleshed". (1) 

He was said to have a commanding presence with a keen and intelligent gaze.

Miniature from illuminated Chronicle of Matthew Paris (1236-1259),

FASHION Like most Norman nobles, Henry dressed richly in embroidered tunics, furs, and ornate belts, though he was not known for excessive luxury.

CHARACTER Henry I was considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler. He was known for being intensely clever, calculating, and ruthless in matters of state and power. Henry had a stern and serious disposition, which underpinned his reputation as a strict administrator of justice

William of Malmesbury noted that he was not prone to personal combat, verifying the saying "My mother bore me a commander, not a soldier," and that he preferred contending by counsel rather than by the sword. Henry was an able administrator who achieved peace in England and relative stability in Normandy.​

However, he could be ruthless and severe when necessary. Historian C. Warren Hollister notes that while Henry's administrative policies were highly efficient, they were frequently regarded as oppressive. He was known for harsh justice—when he discovered in 1124 that minters had been debasing the coinage with tin instead of silver, he had dozens of them castrated and their right hands cut off at the "Assize of Moneyers" in Winchester. He also ordered the blinding of three captive rebels.​

Despite or perhaps because of his harsh justice, he was remembered fondly after his death, with the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle noting: "A good man he was, there was great awe of him. No man durst misdo against another in his time. He made peace for man and beast".​

SPEAKING VOICE  Henry was born in England and was probably the first Norman king to be fluent in English. He spoke Norman French as his primary language but also read Latin due to his education. The next English king to speak English as a first language would not come until Henry IV, more than 300 years later.​

SENSE OF HUMOUR Chroniclers rarely mention humour in connection with Henry I; his reputation is one of solemnity and pragmatism. William of Malmesbury noted that Henry was "facetious in proper season" and that despite the multiplicity of business, he remained pleasant when mixing in society. If he possessed humour, it was likely dry and infrequent, fitting his stern temperament 

RELATIONSHIPS Henry married twice. His first wife was Matilda of Scotland (originally named Edith, but renamed Matilda after marriage), daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland and niece of Edgar Atheling. They married on November 11, 1100 at Westminster Abbey. This strategic marriage gave Henry legitimacy with his Saxon subjects due to Matilda's Anglo-Saxon royal lineage. The marriage appears to have been successful, with Matilda described as "Matilda the Good Queen," beloved by her husband and deeply popular with the English people. She acted as regent during Henry's absences and was active in governance, issuing 31 charters during their 18-year marriage. They had four children, but only two survived: Empress Matilda (born 1102) and William Adelin (born 1103). Matilda of Scotland died on 1 May 1118 and was buried at Westminster Abbey; there was discussion of having her canonized.​

Depiction of Queen Matilda in a family tree

After the White Ship disaster killed his heir William in November 1120, Henry remarried. His second wife was Adeliza of Louvain, daughter of Godfrey I, Count of Louvain. Born around 1103, she was about 18 years old when she married the 53-year-old Henry on January 24, 1121 at Windsor Castle. Known as "The Fair Maid of Brabant" for her beauty and descended from Charlemagne, Adeliza was selected specifically to provide Henry with a new male heir. 

Despite traveling extensively with Henry (presumably to increase chances of conception), and even acquiring relics of St. Romanus at Rouen Cathedral in hopes of becoming pregnant, the marriage produced no children. Unlike Henry's first wife, Adeliza showed little interest in politics, issuing only one charter during her 14-year marriage to Henry compared to Matilda of Scotland's 31. After Henry's death, Adeliza upheld her oath to support his daughter Matilda's claim to the throne.​​

Henry I was notorious for his numerous mistresses and illegitimate children. Keeping a mistress was common for Anglo-Norman noblemen, but Henry took this to an extreme, maintaining many mistresses from all walks of life and conducting these relationships publicly. He is remembered for having a large brood of illegitimate children, with the number estimated at approximately 20-24, though the real figure could be higher. Rather than keeping his illegitimate children out of public life, he found advantageous marriages for them and elevated many of the sons to important positions.​

His known mistresses included: Sybilla Corbet of Alcester (from a powerful family; mother of Robert, Earl of Gloucester, who later supported his half-sister Matilda's claim to the throne, and also mother of a daughter Sybilla who married King Alexander of Scotland); Ansfrida (widow of a knight; mother of Richard, who drowned in the White Ship); Edith (daughter of Forn Sigulfson, Lord of Greystoke); Nesta, Princess of Deheubarth; and Isabella of Meulan. These women didn't bear all his illegitimate children, so there were many other unknown mothers as well. Historians estimate Henry must have had at least ten mistresses from various social backgrounds.​

The most well-known of his illegitimate children was Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, born in 1090 before Henry became king. Other notable illegitimate children included Matilda FitzRoy, Richard of Lincoln (both drowned in the White Ship), Sybilla of Normandy (wife of King Alexander I of Scotland), Maud FitzRoy (wife of Conan III, Duke of Brittany), and several others. Henry not only acknowledged and educated his illegitimate children but also provided for them generously and arranged influential marriages for them.​

Early 14th-century depiction of Henry mourning the death of his son

MONEY AND FAME Henry I was highly effective at managing royal finances and increasing royal revenue. He inherited the throne at a time when reform was needed and moved quickly to address financial administration. He introduced major innovations in royal administration, most notably the Exchequer, a system of accounting and financial management that improved the collection and administration of royal revenues. The Exchequer was initially a biannual audit of royal revenues from the counties and special session of the king's council to receive money from sheriffs.​

Henry increased royal revenue through multiple sources: crown lands, which he managed efficiently; customs and trade revenues, which he augmented through favorable treaties; feudal dues and reliefs from his barons; fines from courts; and careful management of church revenues during vacancies. He was known to keep bishoprics and abbacies unfilled for years to enjoy their revenues, though he was more discreet about this than his brother William Rufus had been.​

When Henry discovered in 1124 that royal minters had been debasing the coinage—issuing coins that were mostly tin instead of silver—he responded severely at the "Assize of Moneyers" in Winchester, having the guilty minters castrated and their right hands cut off. This harsh action demonstrated his commitment to maintaining the integrity of the currency, unlike his descendant Henry VIII, who would later deliberately debase English coinage to fund his expenses.​

Henry used his monetary resources strategically, employing them to put down rebellions and defend frontiers, and to buy the loyalty of barons through favors and grants. His administrative policies, while efficient, were frequently regarded as oppressive. Nevertheless, his fiscal management contributed to the stability of his long reign. Henry was wealthy enough to found Reading Abbey, one of the largest monasteries in Europe, sparing no expense in its construction and endowing it generously.​

FOOD AND DRINK The most famous aspect of Henry I's relationship with food is that it allegedly killed him. Contemporary chronicler Henry of Huntingdon attributed the king's death to "a surfeit of lampreys"—small, eel-like, jawless fish that Henry consumed at Lyons-la-Forêt in Normandy in late November 1135. Roger of Wendover recorded that Henry "stopped at St. Denys in the wood of Lions to eat some lampreys, a fish he was very fond of, though they always disagreed with him, and the physicians had often cautioned him against eating them, but he would not listen to their advice".​ (2)

Beyond this fatal meal, Henry was in Normandy on a hunting trip with his court when he died, suggesting that hunting feasts were a regular part of his activities.​

MUSIC AND ARTS  He was an educated man, suggesting a general appreciation for the cultural pursuits of the time, though his focus remained squarely on administration and justice rather than explicit patronage of the arts. 

Henry supported the development of liturgical music and clerical learning, especially through church reform.

Henry's second wife, Adeliza of Louvain, was an active patron of the arts during their marriage, being influential in the rise of French poetry at the English court and sponsoring French literature and secular books in French or Anglo-Norman, which were extremely popular at the time. This suggests that Henry's court had a sophisticated cultural environment, even if his own personal involvement in the arts is not well-documented.​

LITERATURE His nickname Beauclerc testifies to his literacy and appreciation for learning. He was one of the few monarchs of his era capable of reading Latin literature and historical texts

Henry's court attracted scholars and chroniclers. William of Malmesbury, one of the most important English chroniclers of the 12th century, wrote during Henry's reign and provided detailed accounts of his rule.

NATURE  Henry loved hunting, especially in the royal forests — a passion shared by his father and brothers. He was present at the fateful hunting expedition in the New Forest on August 2, 1100 when his brother William Rufus was killed by an arrow, possibly fired by Walter Tirel. Henry himself died while on a hunting trip at Lyons-la-Forêt near Rouen in Normandy in December 1135. He had been intending to go hunting on the day of his death but fell ill in the night and never recovered.​

Henry's royal seal, showing the King on horseback 

The importance of hunting to Henry is further evidenced by the extensive royal forests maintained during his reign. These forests were not just woodland but vast tracts of land where the king and his nobles could pursue deer and boar.​

PETS Records mention royal hunting dogs and falcons among his household animals.

There are no surviving records of Henry I keeping specific pets. Unlike his descendant Henry VII, whose favorite greyhound "Launcelot" is mentioned by name in royal accounts, no personal pets of Henry I are documented. However, as an avid hunter, he would have kept hunting dogs and likely hawks for falconry, which were essential tools for the royal sport rather than pets in the modern sense.​

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Hunting was a major political and leisure activity, and Henry I was known to be an avid participant, essential for a ruler to maintain fitness and a political network

As a royal figure, he would have attended tournaments and martial exercises, though he was noted as not being prone to personal combat and preferred to contend "by counsel rather than by the sword". (3)

His education suggests he may have engaged in intellectual pursuits as hobbies, such as reading and discussion with learned men.​

SCIENCE AND MATHS Henry I's reign saw significant administrative innovations that required systematic thinking. The development of the Exchequer under his rule—a sophisticated system for auditing royal revenues and managing finances—represented a form of applied mathematics and bureaucratic science for its time. The Exchequer's methodical approach to accounting and financial management was an important step toward modern governmental administration.​

REIGN Henry’s career didn’t exactly begin with a fanfare of celestial trumpets. When his father, William the Conqueror, died in 1087, Henry received what might politely be called the short straw of inheritance: money, and little else. His elder brothers, Robert and William Rufus, got the good stuff — duchies, crowns, castles. Henry, being both ambitious and practical, immediately spent his inheritance on a piece of property — the County of Cotentin in western Normandy — bought, rather optimistically, from his brother Robert. It was a bold move, but not a durable one. Within a few years, his brothers combined forces and threw him out.

Undeterred, Henry did what he would spend much of his life doing: quietly rebuilding, plotting, and waiting for the right moment to strike. He regained influence in Cotentin, cozied up to William Rufus, and bided his time. That moment came in 1100, in the most medieval way possible — a hunting “accident” in the New Forest. William Rufus took an arrow, fatally, and Henry, who happened to be conveniently nearby, wasted not a second on brotherly grief. Leaving Rufus’s body cooling in the bracken, he galloped off to Winchester, seized the royal treasury, and — in an act of astonishing political speed — had himself crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey on August 5. 1100, just three days later.

A 17th-century manuscript drawing of Henry's coronation.

Once on the throne, Henry wasted no time shoring up his position. He issued the Charter of Liberties, a sort of medieval press release promising good governance, then married Matilda of Scotland (born Edith) on 11 November 1100. Matilda came with impeccable credentials — she was the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland and a direct descendant of Edmund Ironside, which neatly united Norman conquerors and Anglo-Saxon royalty. Henry also brought back Archbishop Anselm, who had been sulking in exile, to give the whole operation a touch of divine legitimacy.

But peace, in Henry’s world, was always temporary. His other brother, Robert Curthose, soon arrived to claim the throne. Henry, never one to let family get in the way of power, outmaneuvered him with the Treaty of Alton in 1101, securing his crown for good measure. The détente didn’t last. By 1105, Henry was invading Normandy itself, and in 1106, at the Battle of Tinchebray, he decisively defeated Robert, captured him, and locked him away for the rest of his natural life — 28 long years, which in those days practically was a life sentence.

Henry’s dominance in Normandy didn’t go unchallenged. He soon found himself sparring with Louis VI of France, Baldwin VII of Flanders, and Fulk V of Anjou — all of whom threw their weight behind Robert’s son, William Clito. This produced one of the great underappreciated medieval feuds, culminating in Henry’s victory at the Battle of Brémule in 1119 and a favorable peace the following year.

Then, just when things seemed stable, fate delivered a gut punch in the form of the White Ship disaster in November 1120. The ship carrying Henry’s only legitimate son, William Adelin, sank in the English Channel, taking nearly 300 souls with it — including two of Henry’s illegitimate children. The king was devastated. In desperation, he remarried — Adeliza of Louvain in 1121 — in hopes of producing another male heir. It didn’t work.

In the absence of a son, Henry took the unthinkable step of naming his daughter, Empress Matilda, as heir, forcing his barons to swear allegiance to her in 1126–1127. It was a daring choice, and one that would later plunge England into a civil war — but Henry himself didn’t live to see the fallout.

After 35 years on the throne, a reign of iron control, cold calculation, and administrative brilliance, Henry I died in 1135, reportedly after eating “a surfeit of lampreys” — his favorite dish. Thus ended the life of a king who had clawed his way to power with equal parts intellect and audacity, leaving behind an orderly government, a fractured succession, and a very bad reputation for seafood.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Henry I was, by the standards of his age, a genuinely religious man—though perhaps more in the steady, dutiful way of a conscientious administrator than in the rapturous fashion of a saint. He attended church services with the same unflagging punctuality he brought to royal councils and, though he never joined a crusade himself, he spoke of the cause with the reverence expected of a Christian king.

Yet Henry’s relationship with the Church was anything but simple. His reign landed squarely in the middle of the Investiture Controversy, a long-running tug-of-war between popes and kings over who had the right to appoint bishops and abbots. The quarrel had begun under his father, William the Conqueror, and continued under his brother, William Rufus, who had handled churchmen with all the delicacy of a man swatting flies. When Henry inherited the throne, the issue came to a head with the formidable Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury.

At first, the two men got on splendidly. Anselm had supported Henry’s claim to the crown, approved his politically astute marriage to Matilda of Scotland, and lent him moral authority when he needed it most. But the harmony didn’t last. The trouble came over lay investiture—whether the king could hand bishops the symbols of their office. Anselm said absolutely not; Henry, unsurprisingly, said absolutely yes. Things escalated until the archbishop threatened the king with excommunication, which in the 12th century was roughly the spiritual equivalent of being cancelled by God Himself.

After years of wrangling—during which Henry’s sister, Adela, played the role of family mediator—a compromise was hammered out at the Conference of Bec in 1106 and later formalized in the Concordat of London (1107). Henry agreed to stop investing bishops with their sacred symbols, conceding that spiritual matters belonged to the Church. In return, the bishops would still do homage to him for the lands they held from the crown. It was a neat, lawyerly solution that allowed both sides to declare victory.

Henry didn’t just negotiate with the Church; he also patronized it lavishly. He founded and endowed religious houses, the most famous being Reading Abbey, established on June 18, 1121 as his grand royal abbey and chosen burial site. The foundation charter declared it was built “for the salvation of my soul, and the souls of King William, my father, King William, my brother, Queen Maud, my wife, and all my ancestors and successors.” He also gave generously to pilgrims, rebuilt war-damaged churches in Normandy, and generally did his best to look pious.

Whether out of conviction, caution, or strategy, Henry’s religion was the steady kind—devout enough to inspire respect, pragmatic enough to avoid trouble, and perfectly suited to a king who preferred order in both his realm and his soul.

POLITICS Henry I was a highly skilled political operator who strengthened royal authority through administrative innovation and careful management of the nobility. His political philosophy emphasized strong central control, efficient governance, and the maintenance of peace through a combination of harsh justice and strategic alliances.​

His political achievements include establishing the Pax Normannica (Norman peace) and issuing the Charter of Liberties (1100), which formed a precursor to Magna Carta. His most enduring legacy is the systematic reorganization of royal finance through the creation of the Exchequer 

SCANDAL The most significant scandal associated with Henry I concerns the circumstances of his accession to the throne. His brother William Rufus died in a hunting accident in the New Forest on  August 2, 1100, struck by an arrow allegedly fired by Walter Tirel. Henry was present at the hunting party and displayed what many considered indecent haste in abandoning his brother's body and rushing to Winchester to seize the royal treasury, followed by his coronation just three days later.​

The speed of Henry's actions, combined with the fact that he directly benefited from William's death, has led many historians to suspect that the "accident" may have been assassination. Several suspicious circumstances support this theory: William Rufus was an excellent archer, so an accidental misdirection seems unlikely; Tirel vigorously denied killing William under oath to Abbot Suger of the Abbey of Saint-Denis; there was no investigation into the death; Tirel was not subjected to any punishment or loss of land; and Henry's remarkable preparedness to seize power suggests prior planning. At the time, William Rufus had been refusing to sanction Henry's marriage plans to the Scottish Princess Edith (Matilda). However, the case is not proven, and many historians note that hunting accidents were common—William's brother Richard and nephew also died in hunting accidents.​

Henry's treatment of his brother Robert Curthose after defeating him at Tinchebray was controversial. He kept Robert imprisoned for nearly 28 years until Robert's death in 1134. While Robert evidently lived in comfortable conditions (described as "considerable luxury" by historian Warren Hollister) and was treated well overall, some very late sources (from the late 12th and early 13th centuries) claim that Robert attempted to escape in 1119 and was blinded to prevent recurrence, though these accounts are considered unreliable. Henry's decision to keep his brother imprisoned for life, while arguably politically prudent, was seen by some contemporaries as harsh.​ (4)

Henry's numerous illegitimate children and public relationships with multiple mistresses were noted by contemporaries. While keeping mistresses was common for medieval noblemen, Henry's extent of such relationships—with at least 10 known mistresses from all social backgrounds and approximately 20-24 illegitimate children—was remarkable even for his time. However, this was less a scandal than a characteristic for which he was known, and he openly acknowledged and provided for his illegitimate offspring.​

Finally, Henry's practice of keeping bishoprics and abbacies vacant to enjoy their revenues was considered exploitative, though he was more discreet about it than his brother William Rufus had been. This practice contradicted his promises in the Charter of Liberties and was a source of tension with the Church.​

MILITARY RECORD Henry I’s military career was not that of a sword-swinging hero galloping across battlefields in gleaming armor. He was, instead, the kind of man who won wars by thinking rather than charging. The chronicler William of Malmesbury summed him up neatly: Henry “was not prone to personal combat,” preferring to “contend by counsel rather than by the sword.” It echoed the old Roman line attributed to Scipio Africanus — “My mother bore me a commander, not a soldier.” In short, Henry was the kind of general who let other men do the stabbing while he handled the strategy.

Henry’s first taste of military misfortune came early. When his father died in 1087, he received cash instead of land — an inheritance about as useful as a bag of coins in a family of warlords. Ever the pragmatist, he used it to buy the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from his brother Robert. It was a nice idea while it lasted. Within a few years, both Robert and their other brother, William Rufus, combined forces to throw him out. By 1091, Henry was landless and exiled, surviving on cunning and opportunity. Slowly, he rebuilt his position in the Cotentin, and, sensing which way the wind was blowing, allied himself with William Rufus against Robert — a move that would serve him well later.

Key Battles and Campaigns

1101 – Robert’s Invasion: When Robert Curthose crossed the Channel to claim the English throne, Henry didn’t rush into battle. Instead, he used a combination of alliances, diplomacy, and sheer patience to secure his position. Supported by several barons, the Anglo-Saxon population, and the ever-loyal Archbishop Anselm, Henry negotiated the Treaty of Alton, which confirmed him as king and sent Robert home without a fight.

1105–1106 – Conquest of Normandy: Henry wasn’t content to sit on his English throne while Robert ruled across the Channel. In 1105, he launched a campaign into Normandy, capturing Bayeux and Caen before withdrawing to deal with political unrest. The next year he returned, better prepared and in no mood for half-measures. He quickly took the fortified abbey of Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives, then moved on to Tinchebray Castle, setting the stage for his defining moment.

September 28, 1106 – Battle of Tinchebray: At Tinchebray, Henry’s strategic coolness paid off. When Robert arrived to relieve the siege, Henry organized his troops into three divisions, led by trusted commanders Ranulf of Bayeux, Robert de Beaumont, and William de Warenne, with Elias I of Maine holding the reserve. In a move that startled many, Henry ordered his knights to fight on foot, sacrificing glamour for control. The battle lasted barely an hour. Henry’s forces crushed Robert’s army, capturing not only his brother but also William, Count of Mortain, and several high-ranking nobles. It was the kind of victory that defined reigns — and ended others. Robert would spend the next 28 years in captivity, outliving neither his freedom nor his relevance.

15th century picture of the Battle of Tinchebray, by the Rohan Master

1116–1119 – Norman Rebellions: Peace didn’t last long. Henry’s rule in Normandy was challenged by a powerful coalition — Louis VI of France, Baldwin VII of Flanders, and Fulk V of Anjou — all backing Robert’s son, William Clito. The rebellion simmered for years, but Henry methodically crushed it.

1119 – Battle of Brémule: Henry’s victory at Brémule cemented his reputation as a master of defense and diplomacy. The resulting peace settlement with Louis VI in 1120 secured his position and confirmed England and Normandy’s unity under his control.

Henry’s genius wasn’t in conquest but in consolidation. Once Normandy was subdued, he shifted from fighter to manager. His focus was on defense, stability, and intelligent governance. He built and maintained a web of fortifications across England and Normandy and cultivated a network of loyal nobles. Because he spent much of his time abroad, Henry also strengthened royal administration — effectively inventing the early English bureaucracy that could run the realm even in his absence.

Henry’s military reputation rests squarely on Tinchebray — a single, decisive victory that reunited England and Normandy under one ruler and kept them that way for the rest of his reign. He may not have been a warrior-king in the romantic sense, but in the chess game of medieval politics, Henry I was always three moves ahead.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Henry I appears to have enjoyed generally good health throughout most of his long life. He lived to approximately 66-67 years old, which was a good age for the 12th century and notably longer than many of his contemporaries. His father William the Conqueror died at 59; his celebrated grandson Henry II only lived to 56. At the time of his death in late 1135, Henry was described as still being "to all intents and purposes hale and hearty".​ (3)

HOMES Henry I moved frequently between various royal residences in England and Normandy, as was typical for medieval monarchs whose presence was necessary to maintain control over their territories.

Winchester was particularly important to Henry. On the day William Rufus died, Henry rushed to Winchester to seize the royal treasury, demonstrating the city's importance as an administrative center. Winchester had been the capital of the Saxon kings of England and held the royal treasury and governmental records. Winchester Castle was a major royal fortress built by William fitzOsbern in 1067, protected by stone walls and used as a residence by visiting monarchs. By around 1100, the castle had superseded the old royal palace in the city and became Henry's royal residence. Henry reinforced and maintained Winchester Castle throughout his reign.​

Westminster was also significant. Henry was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 5 August 1100, just three days after his brother's death. Westminster was increasingly becoming the administrative center of England, though Winchester retained the treasury during Henry's reign.​

Reading Abbey, which Henry founded on June 18, 1121, was intended as his burial place and represented one of his most important building projects. The abbey was built "between the rivers Kennet and Thames, in a spot calculated for the reception of almost all who might have occasion to travel to the most populous cities of England". No expense was spared in the abbey's construction—stone was imported from Normandy and the Cotswolds, and the church was 450 feet long. Henry died before the abbey was complete but was buried there in 1136 in front of the high altar.​

In Normandy, Henry spent considerable time at various ducal residences. He died at Lyons-la-Forêt near Rouen in Normandy while on a hunting trip in December 1135. 

TRAVEL As Duke of Normandy and King of England, Henry I spent much of his reign traveling between his domains across the English Channel. His territories required constant attention—he needed to maintain control over both England and Normandy, which were separated by the Channel and faced different political challenges.​

Henry spent a significant amount of time abroad, often more than he spent in England. His frequent absences from England prompted the development of a bureaucracy capable of operating effectively without him. During his absences, arrangements were made for regents. His first wife, Matilda of Scotland, acted as regent on several occasions during Henry's absences: in 1104, 1107, 1108, and 1111. Roger of Salisbury came to supervise much royal administration and acted as the king's viceroy for at least one period (1123-1126).​

Henry's second wife, Adeliza of Louvain, traveled extensively with Henry throughout England after their marriage in 1121, which was unusual—queens often moved separately and at a slower pace. Their constant proximity was likely intended to increase the chances of Adeliza conceiving a much-needed male heir.​

The journey between England and Normandy involved crossing the Channel, which could be dangerous. The White Ship disaster of November 25, 1120 occurred during such a crossing from Barfleur in Normandy to England. The ship, carrying Henry's son William Adelin, his half-siblings, and about 300 nobles and crew members, struck a rock and sank, with only one survivor. Henry himself had traveled separately in his own vessel.​

Henry's final journey was from his body being transported from Normandy to England. After his death at Lyons-la-Forêt on 1 December 1135, his embalmed body was carried to Caen, where it waited four weeks for favorable winds. The ship finally set sail at Christmas with an escort of monks, landing in England where it was met by his nephew Stephen (who had already seized the throne). The body was then carried to Reading Abbey for burial.​

DEATH Henry I died on December 1, 1135 at Lyons-la-Forêt (also called Saint-Denis-en-Lyons) near Rouen in Normandy. He was approximately 66-67 years old.​

Henry had been staying in Normandy longer than intended due to political difficulties and was on a hunting trip with his court in the forest of Lyons in late November. According to contemporary chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, Henry became unwell after eating "a surfeit of lampreys"—small, eel-like fish that he was very fond of. Roger of Wendover recorded that lampreys "always disagreed with him, and the physicians had often cautioned him against eating them, but he would not listen to their advice".​

Henry reportedly ate the lampreys on November 25, and fell ill that same evening, never recovering. He had been intending to go hunting the next day but fell ill in the night with chills, convulsions, and fever. His death came on 1 December after about a week of illness. On his deathbed, Henry gave instructions that his body should be taken to Reading Abbey, "where he had founded a monastery for 200 monks". His closest retainers, including his illegitimate son Robert de Caen and the Archbishop of Rouen with 20,000 men, swore to stay with his body until it reached Reading.​

Modern scholars debate the actual cause of death. While tradition blames the lampreys, most historians lean toward food poisoning (possibly listeria, which thrives in cold, damp conditions) or another sudden illness unrelated to the meal. Other possible causes discussed include acute infections, though his planning to hunt the next day suggests he felt well before the evening meal. Some speculated about deliberate poisoning, but both potential heirs (his daughter Matilda and nephew Stephen) appeared surprised by his death, making foul play unlikely.​

Henry's body was embalmed at Rouen Cathedral in a process that involved removing his heart, intestines, brain, and eyes (buried separately at the priory of Notre-Dame-du-Pré). Scented balm was rubbed on his insides, his flesh was rubbed with salt to prevent decomposition, and the corpse was wrapped in ox hides. The man who removed Henry's brain was reportedly killed by the "strong, pervasive stench". Despite these preservation efforts, black fluid started leaking from the ox hides during the delays.​ (5)

The corpse's journey to England was delayed four weeks at Caen by winter gales preventing the ship from setting out. The ship finally sailed at Christmas with favorable winds, accompanied by an escort of monks from Saint-Etienne. Henry's nephew Stephen, who had been crowned king on December 22, despite Matilda's rival claim, met the ship when it landed in England. Stephen and his nobles carried the bier on their shoulders, and the body was then carried to Reading Abbey.​

Burial: Henry I was buried at Reading Abbey in January 1136, in front of the high altar of the abbey church he had founded. The abbey had not yet been completed at the time of his death. The burial took place "with great honour," and Henry funded the monks to say perpetual masses for his brother Robert's soul as well (Robert had died in February 1134). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles recorded: "That very year the king died in Normandy the next day after the Feast of St. Andrew. Then this land immediately grew dark because every man who could immediately robbed another. Then his son and his friends took and brought his body to England, and buried it at Reading".​

Henry's death threw England into a succession crisis and a civil war known as the Anarchy. His nephew Stephen seized the throne with remarkable speed, being crowned on December 22, just three weeks after Henry's death. This violated Henry's carefully laid plans to have his daughter Matilda succeed him, for which he had forced the barons to swear oaths of allegiance. The resulting civil war between Stephen and Matilda would last for years.​

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Historical documentaries have covered his reign, including analysis of his administrative innovations, the White Ship disaster, and the Anarchy that followed his death.​

YouTube educational content exists examining his reign, including animated history documentaries.​

Reading Museum created extensive interpretive materials about Henry I and Reading Abbey, including exhibitions and educational programs, particularly for the 900th anniversary of Reading Abbey's foundation in 2021.​

He appears in historical fiction and novels about the period, particularly those dealing with the Anarchy and his daughter Empress Matilda.​

Academic and popular history books about Norman England regularly feature detailed accounts of his reign and achievements.​

ACHIEVEMENTS Established strong administrative systems and the royal exchequer

Issued the Charter of Liberties (a forerunner of Magna Carta)

Unified Norman and Saxon royal lines through his marriage

Secured England and Normandy under one rule

Left a lasting legacy as one of medieval England’s most effective kings

Sources: (1) Personal Appearances of Medieval People (2) The History Girls (3) English Monarchs (4) Reddit (5) Reading Museum