Frederick Barbarossa

NAME Frederick I, commonly known as Frederick Barbarossa. His nickname "Barbarossa" is Italian for "red beard." In German, he is known as "Friedrich Rotbart."

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Frederick Barbarossa was a revered Holy Roman Emperor who reigned from 1155 until his death in 1190. He is celebrated for his efforts to restore the prestige and power of the Holy Roman Empire, his involvement in the Crusades, and his legendary status in German folklore (the Kyffhäuser legend). He sought to unify the disparate German states and assert imperial authority over the wealthy city-states of Lombardy in northern Italy.

BIRTH Frederick was born around December 1122, with sources indicating he was born circa 1123. Some sources place his birth specifically in December 1122. He was born at Waiblingen in Swabia, which is now in modern Germany.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Frederick came from noble lineage, being the son of Duke Frederick II of Swabia (Frederick "the One-Eyed"), and Judith, daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria. His family connections were significant as he united the blood of two rival dynasties - the Welfs and the Hohenstaufen. His uncle was Conrad III, who served as his predecessor as German king. Through his mother, he was connected to the Guelph family, while his father represented the Hohenstaufen dynasty.

CHILDHOOD Frederick learned typical skills for German royalty of the Dark Ages, including riding, hunting, and weaponry. Frederick took part in at least four Hoftags (assemblies convened by princes) during his youth, including gatherings at Strasbourg (1141), Konstanz (1142), Ulm (1143), Würzburg (1144), and Worms (1145), which gave him vital political experience.

EDUCATION Several authoritative sources, including John Freed's biography Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth, argue that Frederick was likely illiterate or at best only minimally literate. Freed repeatedly stresses Frederick’s illiteracy, noting that there is no evidence he could read or write, and suggesting he would have been unable to understand the Latin panegyrics written in his honor. Other scholars echo this view, pointing out that Frederick was not expected to inherit the throne and thus was not given the thorough education in Latin and letters reserved for those destined for ecclesiastical careers or unexpected heirs. Instead, his upbringing focused on military training, with only rudimentary reading and writing skills, if any. As emperor, he often relied on translators and interpreters for Latin, which was the language of administration and diplomacy in his realm.

However, some historians find it difficult to believe that a ruler in constant contact with clerics, jurists, and poets would remain entirely ignorant of Latin, especially over a reign spanning nearly four decades. While there is consensus that Frederick was not fluent in Latin, it is possible he acquired some proficiency out of necessity during his reign, particularly in understanding spoken Latin or basic written phrases, though there is no direct evidence he achieved full literacy

CAREER RECORD 1147: Accompanied his uncle, King Conrad III, on the Second Crusade.

1152: Elected King of Germany at Frankfurt; crowned King of the Romans at Aachen.

1154-1155: First Italian campaign; helped Pope Adrian IV against the Roman Commune; crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome (1155).

1158-1162: Second Italian campaign; besieged and destroyed Milan; held the Diet of Roncaglia, where he asserted imperial rights (regalia).

1163-1164: Third Italian campaign (less successful).

1166-1168: Fourth Italian campaign, marked by a devastating plague that decimated his army; forced to retreat.

1174-1176: Fifth Italian campaign; suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Legnano against the Lombard League (1176).

1177: Signed the Treaty of Venice with Pope Alexander III and the Lombard cities, recognizing their liberties but affirming imperial suzerainty.

1180: Successfully suppressed the rebellion of his powerful cousin, Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, significantly strengthening imperial power in Germany.

1184: Held the magnificent Diet of Mainz, a grand celebration of imperial power.

1186: His son Henry VI married Constance, heiress to the Kingdom of Sicily, significantly expanding Hohenstaufen influence in Italy.

1189-1190: Led the German contingent of the Third Crusade.

APPEARANCE Frederick's most distinctive feature was his red beard, which earned him his famous nickname. Sources describe him as having a majestic personal appearance. Contemporary accounts emphasize that his physical presence was commanding and contributed to his natural authority as a ruler.

Frederick Barbarossa as a crusader, miniature from a copy of the Historia Hierosolymitana, 1188

FASHION As an emperor, Frederick wore rich garments befitting his status, including luxurious fabrics, furs, and embroidered robes, often adorned with precious jewels. His crown and imperial regalia would have been central to his public image, symbolizing his divine right to rule. He was often depicted in armor when engaged in military campaigns.

CHARACTER Frederick possessed a complex personality that combined attractive kindliness with shrewd calculation. Though he had fits of uncontrolled passion at times, he was sufficiently master of himself to restrain his anger when necessary for political purposes. 

He was described as having a bold spirit with astonishing firmness in pursuing his aims. Frederick surprised contemporaries with the clearness and cleverness of his speech, rapid comprehension and decision-making, and well-reasoned, logical policy. He was naturally conservative and knew how to deal with existing political forces. (1)

SPEAKING VOICE Frederick spoke Middle High German, which was the language used during the medieval period. According to gaming community discussions about historical accuracy, his voice would have sounded to modern German speakers similar to how "ye olde English" sounds to contemporary English speakers.

SENSE OF HUMOUR  Frederick is generally depicted as a shrewd, calculating, and sometimes fiery-tempered ruler, known for his ambition, discipline, and formidable presence. There is little to suggest he was known for lightheartedness or overt humor in his public or private life.

RELATIONSHIPS Frederick's first marriage was to Adelheid of Vohburg, which took place sometime before March 1147 shortly before Frederick departed for the Second Crusade. Thes marriage was likely arranged in preparation for his crusading venture. The union was later annulled in 1153 on the grounds of consanguinity (they were fourth cousins, once removed). and it produced no children.

He then married Beatrice of Burgundy on June 9, 1156 in Würzburg, Germany. The wedding is famously commemorated in art, notably in frescoes by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo in the Imperial Hall of the Würzburg Residenz. Beatrice was the daughter and heiress of Renaud III, Count of Burgundy. This marriage brought the County of Burgundy into Frederick's realm and produced  eleven children, though only five lived to adulthood: Henry (1165), Conrad (1167), Otto (1170), Conrad (1170), and Philip (1177). 

The Marriage of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Beatrice of Burgundy by Tiepolo

Frederick's relationship with his powerful cousin Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was complex and politically significant.

MONEY AND FAME As Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick controlled vast territories and resources across Central Europe. His reign coincided with increasing wealth in northern Italian cities through trade, representing a shift from medieval feudalism. Frederick created the Tafelgüterverzeichnis, a record of royal estates, demonstrating his systematic approach to managing imperial resources.

Frederick understood the importance of both money and fame in asserting imperial power. He sought to tap into the wealth of northern Italy to fund his ambitions. He also meticulously cultivated his public image, using grand diets and ceremonies to display his power and legendary status. His efforts to revive the "Roman" aspect of the Holy Roman Empire were also aimed at enhancing his prestige.

FOOD AND DRINK While there are no surviving records of Frederick Barbarossa's personal favorite dishes, his diet would have reflected the customs and abundance of the imperial court, with a strong emphasis on meat, dairy, bread, and traditional medieval drinks

MUSIC AND ARTS  Frederick's court was a center for medieval arts and culture. Minstrels, troubadours, and chroniclers performed and documented events and architectural projects, particularly churches and castles, were undertaken during his reign, reflecting the imperial aesthetic of the time.

LITERATURE While Frederick was illiterate and could not read, his court was a center for scholarly and literary activity, and his reign contributed significantly to Central European culture and the re-establishment of Roman law.

His life and reign became a subject of numerous contemporary chronicles and later legends, most notably the Kyffhäuser legend, which portrays him as a sleeping emperor awaiting his return to restore Germany's glory.

NATURE  Frederick was intimately familiar with the natural landscapes of Germany and Italy. Hunting, a common pastime for medieval nobility, connected him with nature.

PETS Hunting dogs and falcons were common among medieval nobility such as Frederick for sport and status.

Image by Perplexity

HOBBIES AND SPORTS From a young age, Frederick learned to ride, hunt, and master weaponry—skills essential for German royalty in the 12th century. Hunting was not only a pastime but also a demonstration of leadership and prowess.

SCIENCE AND MATHS  In the 12th century, "science" was largely intertwined with philosophy, theology, and practical arts. While Frederick was not a known scholar of pure science or mathematics, his interest in Roman law shows a rational and systematic approach to governance. Practical knowledge related to siege warfare, engineering, and logistics would have been important in his military campaigns.

REIGN Frederick Barbarossa, whose name rather grandly translates to “Red Beard” and whose presence on a battlefield must have resembled a particularly cross Viking with a diploma in statecraft, was elected King of Germany in 1152 and promptly declared Holy Roman Emperor three years later, because why stop at just one job title when you can have two? He ruled until 1190, a stretch of 38 years that he spent shaping Central Europe in ways that were occasionally brilliant, often exhausting, and generally quite noisy.

Frederick got off to a brisk start. After a bit of ceremonial pomp in Aachen (think coronation, Latin chanting, and possibly a fine lunch), he began the perennial medieval pastime of consolidating power, which mostly meant keeping your friends happy and your enemies either pacified or out of sight. He wisely cozied up to his cousin Henry the Lion, a man who, despite sounding like a children's book character, was actually one of the most powerful nobles in Germany. For twenty years, they got along famously—by medieval standards—until they didn’t (more on that later).

Frederick then busied himself trying to be the referee in the ongoing cage match that was German noble politics. He poked his imperial nose into Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary, smoothing ruffled feathers and asserting authority, which is a polite way of saying he told them what to do and hoped they’d listen.

Now, Frederick had a particular fascination with Italy, as did most German emperors, because nothing says “legitimacy” quite like a shiny crown placed on your head by the pope in Rome. He marched south no fewer than six times—an astonishing feat considering the logistics involved, not to mention the unhelpful Alps in between.

His first trip in 1154 was reasonably successful: Milan bowed, Tortona got flattened (you can almost hear the sighs from the town council), and he came home with the imperial crown courtesy of Pope Adrian IV. That should have been the start of a beautiful friendship. It wasn’t.

Very quickly, Frederick and the papacy fell into one of those splendid medieval spats over who got to boss whom. This was not helped by Frederick supporting a string of “antipopes” (the ecclesiastical equivalent of backing the other guy in an election) and getting excommunicated for his troubles. He eventually made peace with Pope Alexander III—but only after some military misadventures reminded him that maybe diplomacy was worth a go.

The Lombard cities in northern Italy, who had grown rather fond of their independence and their profits, formed the Lombard League, an alliance of sturdy burghers who were less than thrilled by Frederick’s imperial meddling. The emperor initially had some success (the Battle of Monte Porzio in 1167, for instance), but things took a sour turn at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. There, the Lombards gave Frederick a firm and painful reminder that city militias could be surprisingly effective when sufficiently irritated.

The result was the Peace of Venice in 1177, in which Frederick graciously recognized the independence of the Lombard League and the legitimacy of Pope Alexander—essentially admitting that all that marching around Italy hadn’t quite gone to plan.

Back in Germany, Frederick was less interested in centralization than in practical solutions. While monarchs in France and England were busy building centralized kingdoms, Frederick preferred to spread power around like confetti at a particularly rowdy wedding. He handed out privileges to noble families like the Babenbergs in Austria and tried to keep the peace by acting as imperial umpire among the constantly squabbling nobles.

His old pal Henry the Lion, alas, eventually overstepped. When Henry demanded the city of Goslar—rich in silver and imperial symbolism—Frederick finally lost patience. He hauled Henry into court, stripped him of his lands in 1180, and scattered them to more agreeable nobles. Medieval politics were not for the faint of heart.

In 1189, Frederick, now in his late sixties (an age when most medieval men were comfortably dead), decided to lead the Third Crusade to the Holy Land. And not just lead it—organize it into one of the most disciplined and sizable armies of the era. They marched across Europe, through Hungary and the Balkans, across Anatolia, and even notched a few solid victories at Philomelium and Iconium.

And then, just as things were looking promising, he drowned in a river. The Saleph, in modern-day Turkey, was no great torrent—more of a glorified stream, really—but the emperor managed to fall in and die, bringing his long and occasionally glorious career to a sudden and undignified end. His army, now demoralized and leaderless, promptly fell apart.

Frederick Barbarossa became the stuff of German legend—a kind of medieval King Arthur who, rather than dying completely, is said to be asleep in a mountain, waiting for Germany’s time of need (presumably with a very long beard indeed). In practical terms, his death ushered in a period of fragmentation in the empire. But his legacy—of balancing brute strength with cunning diplomacy, of wrestling with popes and mayors, of endlessly marching up and down Europe—left an indelible mark.

He was, in short, a man who tried to make sense of an empire that rarely did. And for nearly 40 years, he almost managed it.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Frederick Barbarossa’s philosophy was deeply rooted in the concept of imperial authority as divinely sanctioned. He asserted that his right to rule came directly from God, not from the pope or any other ecclesiastical intermediary. In disputes with the papacy, especially with Pope Hadrian IV, Frederick maintained that the emperor’s authority was a beneficium (a divine gift) received from God alone, and not a fief granted by the pope. He emphasized that his election by the German princes and his anointing at Aachen gave him a unique, sacred status in Christendom, uniting German tradition with the holy nature of the empire.

Frederick was instrumental in reviving the Justinian code (Corpus Juris Civilis), using it to justify his imperial ambitions and to counterbalance papal power. Roman law provided a rational, secular foundation for imperial authority, serving as a counterweight to the Church’s claims of supremacy based on divine revelation. Frederick saw himself as a new Roman emperor, responsible for restoring peace, justice, and order in the empire—especially in Italy, where he sought to reassert imperial rights over the increasingly independent Lombard cities.

Frederick’s theological stance was marked by persistent conflict with the papacy. He supported antipopes against Alexander III and was excommunicated for his efforts to assert imperial independence in ecclesiastical matters. Frederick’s vision was reminiscent of caesaropapism: he believed the emperor should have a dominant role over the church, similar to the ancient Roman emperors. Despite these conflicts, he ultimately recognized Alexander III as pope in the Peace of Venice (1177), but only after years of military and diplomatic struggle.

Frederick’s reign saw a renewed emphasis on the “holiness” of the empire (sacrum imperium). He and his chancellor, Rainald of Dassel, promoted symbols and ceremonies that underscored the sacred character of imperial rule, such as the canonization of Charlemagne and the commissioning of religious art like the Barbarossa Chandelier. These actions were intended to reinforce the emperor’s legitimacy and the unity of the German realm, drawing upon both Christian and classical traditions.

Frederick often justified his actions—especially his campaigns in Italy—as divinely mandated efforts to restore justice and concord. He presented himself as the agent of providential order, obligated to enforce peace and the common good, even when it meant imposing imperial authority over rebellious cities

Frederick's relationship with theology was primarily political rather than scholarly. His conflicts with multiple popes and his support for antipopes demonstrate his willingness to challenge ecclesiastical authority. He took Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as his ideal of a German emperor. His crusading activities reflected the religious expectations of his time.

POLITICS Frederick's political philosophy centered on restoring imperial authority and German unity. He believed in the supremacy of the empire over the papacy and worked to consolidate power among German princes. Unlike Henry II of England, Frederick attempted to restore rather than end medieval feudalism. He dealt with princes by finding mutual self-interest and made strategic concessions when necessary.

SCANDAL Frederick's support for antipopes against Alexander III led to his excommunication in 1160. His conflicts with the papacy created ongoing controversy throughout his reign. The annulment of his first marriage on grounds of consanguinity also represented a significant personal and political matter.

MILITARY RECORD Frederick's military career was extensive but mixed in success. He distinguished himself during the Second Crusade as a military leader. 

As emperor, Frederick undertook six major expeditions into Italy. His notable victories included the Battle of Monte Porzio against the Romans in 1167. However, he suffered a crucial defeat at the Battle of Legnano on May 29, 1176, where he was wounded and believed dead for a time. This defeat marked a turning point in his imperial ambitions.  Below shows the soldiers of the Lombard League seeking in vain the dead body of Frederick Barbarossa 

Illustration by A.C. Michael Marshall, Henrietta Elizabeth (1913). A History of Germany. 

 His final military campaign was the Third Crusade, where he successfully led a large German army through difficult terrain and hostile territories in Anatolia, securing crucial victories, demonstrating his continued military leadership even in his old age. His death during the Crusade was a major blow to the expedition.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Frederick was known for his robust health and physical vigor, which allowed him to lead numerous military campaigns well into his sixties. 

HOMES As a medieval monarch, Frederick did not have a single fixed "home" but resided in various imperial palaces (Pfalzen) and castles across Germany and Italy. These included:

Kaiserswerth: An imperial castle on the Rhine. It became legendary as the place where folklore claimed he was sleeping and would return.

Gelnhausen: One of his favored imperial palaces.

Speyer: The burial place of many Salian emperors, important for imperial ceremonies.

Numerous castles and temporary residences across his vast domain as he traveled to administer justice, hold diets, and conduct campaigns.

TRAVEL Frederick's reign involved extensive travel throughout his empire and beyond. He made six expeditions to Italy and traveled extensively within German territories. His final journey was the Third Crusade, which took him through Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, and into Byzantine territory before reaching Anatolia.

DEATH Frederick Barbarossa died on June 10, 1190, while on the Third Crusade. He drowned in the Saleph River (modern-day Göksu River) near Seleucia in the Kingdom of Armenia (now near Silifke, Turkey). Contemporary accounts describe him entering the river to bathe during great heat. His death caused several thousand German soldiers to leave the crusading force and return home. 

To preserve his remains, Frederick's body was reportedly boiled to separate the flesh from the bones—a method known as mos Teutonicus. His flesh was interred in the Cathedral of Saint Peter in Antioch. His bones were sewn into a sack, with the intention of burying them in Jerusalem, but the crusaders never made it that far. Instead, his bones were ultimately buried in the Cathedral of Tyre, and his heart and inner organs were buried in Saint Paul's Church, Tarsus.

The precise location of his remains is still debated, as later expeditions to Tyre failed to find his bones, and the cathedral itself was destroyed in later centuries.

Despite the lack of a traditional funeral, Frederick's death quickly became the stuff of legend. In Germany, he was memorialized as a national hero, and monuments such as the Kyffhäuser memorial kept his memory alive. Myths arose that he was merely sleeping in a mountain, waiting to return and restore German greatness. 

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Frederick Barbarossa's legend has appeared in various forms of media over the centuries. His story has been romanticized in 19th and early 20th-century literature and political symbolism. The Nazi movement appropriated his name for Operation Barbarossa during World War II. 

In modern gaming, he appears as a leader in the Civilization video game series, where he speaks Middle High German.

Numerous statues and monuments in Germany commemorate him, notably the Kyffhäuser Monument.

ACHIEVEMENTS Restoration of Imperial Prestige: Successfully revitalized the Holy Roman Empire's power and influence in Germany.

Suppression of Henry the Lion: Decisively broke the power of the most formidable German duke, solidifying imperial authority within Germany.

Administrative Reforms: Implemented administrative and legal reforms, drawing on Roman law, to strengthen central imperial control.

Treaty of Venice (1177): Despite the military defeat at Legnano, he achieved a diplomatic settlement with the Papacy and Lombard cities, affirming imperial suzerainty while granting autonomy. This demonstrated his pragmatism.

Marriage Alliance with Sicily: Secured the marriage of his son Henry VI to Constance of Sicily, which ultimately led to the Hohenstaufen control of the wealthy Kingdom of Sicily, significantly enhancing imperial power in the south.

Leadership of the Third Crusade: Despite his death, his leadership of the German contingent was a major undertaking and demonstrated his commitment to Christendom.

Source (1) Catholic Answers