NAME Daniel Defoe (originally Daniel Foe).
WHAT FAMOUS FOR The author of Robinson Crusoe, often regarded as the founder of the English novel and a pioneer of modern journalism.
BIRTH Born in 1660 in Fore Street, Applegate, London.
FAMILY BACKGROUND His father, James Foe, was a dissenting butcher and candle merchant. His mother, Alice Foe, died before Daniel turned ten.
CHILDHOOD Growing up in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, his father, James Foe, enjoyed success as a tallow chandler, a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers.
Defoe's formative years were indelibly marked by a series of defining events that reshaped London's landscape. At the tender age of five, he witnessed the horrors of the Great Plague of London in 1665, a catastrophe that claimed an estimated 70,000 lives. The following year, the Great Fire roared through the city, leaving a trail of destruction in its wake. Defoe's neighborhood was particularly affected, with only his home and two others miraculously spared. As if these weren't enough, young Defoe, at around seven years old, bore witness to a Dutch attack on the English town of Chatham during the 1667 Raid on the Medway.
EDUCATION Defoe's family belonged to the Protestant dissenters, a religious group that challenged the authority of the Church of England. This religious affiliation significantly impacted his educational path. Unlike his contemporaries, Defoe wasn't destined for the halls of a traditional English university, which were closed to dissenters at the time.
At the age of 14, Defoe embarked on his academic journey at a dissenting academy run by Reverend James Fisher in Dorking, Surrey. He later continued his education at Charles Morton's dissenting academy in Newington Green. These academies provided a well-rounded education, encompassing classical subjects like Latin and Greek alongside modern languages such as French, Italian, and Spanish. History and geography were also part of the curriculum, offering a broader perspective than what a typical English university education of the time might have provided. Geography was his strongest subject.
This focus on a clear and concise writing style, coupled with influences from the Bible and John Bunyan's works, played a significant role in shaping Defoe's own literary voice. Despite his extensive education, Defoe lacked the formal classical training that distinguished his literary contemporaries like Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope. This outsider status would come to influence his writing career and his ability to interact with other prominent writers of his era.
CAREER RECORD 1676 Followed his father into trade eventually setting up as a merchant selling everything from fine stockings to the glands of civet cards.
1683/84 Hosier merchant in Cornhill
1692 Went bankrupt
1692-95 Acquired control of a tile and brick factory
1695 Obtained a government post
Late 1690s and early 1700s Turned his hand to commerce and traded in everything from marine insurance to liquor and brickworks (it didn't work for him) . As thick as a brick at business and finally overreached himself with his breeding of civit cats for the perfume industry and ended up in Newgate prison a bankrupt.
1703-14 Ran his own newspaper The Review then The Mercator. News was scarce sometimes so he made up reports to print in it. It appeared three times a week even when he was in prison for libel.
1707 He was employed by the government as a propagandist and opinion former in Scotland during the manoeuvres for the 1707 union with England.
1719 Wrote Robinson Crusoe
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| Portrait of Daniel Defoe, National Maritime Museum, London |
FASHION He favored practical but respectable clothing befitting a merchant and writer. Men's fashions in the 17th and 18th centuries included wigs, long coats, waistcoats, and breeches.
A portrait in later life, whose authenticity as a true likeness has been debated, depicts him adorned in a blue and orange gown, a style typical of the gentry. A brown, full-bottomed wig completes the attire. The portrait presents him in half-length, facing the viewer's right.
CHARACTER Defoe was zealous, industrious, and pragmatic. He worked seven days a week and wrote with passion and conviction. Highly intelligent and curious, Defoe was independent-minded and often controversial in his views.
SPEAKING VOICE Defoe likely had a persuasive, authoritative speaking voice, given his success as a propagandist and public figure.
SENSE OF HUMOUR Daniel Defoe's writing, particularly his novels, is infused with a dry wit and a keen sense of the absurd. He masterfully employs various comedic techniques, including situational irony, satire, and ironic narration.
One prominent example of Defoe's humor lies in his use of situational irony. In Robinson Crusoe, the protagonist, after immense labor, constructs a large canoe. However, he soon realizes the impossibility of launching it, a moment that underscores Crusoe's initial hubris and highlights the limitations of his planning. Similarly, in Moll Flanders, Moll's attempts at thievery often lead to unexpected and comical consequences. For instance, after stealing a horse, she finds herself at a loss for what to do with it, ultimately returning it to another inn with a note of apology.
Defoe's humor frequently serves a satirical purpose. In The True-Born Englishman, he employs wit and irony to dismantle prevailing notions of English racial superiority. This satirical critique challenges the very foundations of national identity. Similarly, his portrayal of "gentlemen" in Moll Flanders satirizes the concept, depicting them as often behaving in ways unbecoming of their supposed social standing.
Furthermore, Defoe excels at creating humorous scenes and characters. In Moll Flanders, Moll's attempt to steal during a fire results in a comical mishap that nearly derails her criminal enterprise. The scene at Bartholomew Fair, where she robs a drunken gentleman, is presented with a touch of humor, particularly in Moll's self-justification using biblical references.
Exaggeration and affectation also contribute to the humor in Defoe's works. Moll Flanders' exaggerated behavior and pretensions, especially in her later years, are often presented in a manner that invites reader amusement. Similarly, the exaggerated importance she attaches to her son Humphry in America adds an element of absurdity to her character.
Finally, Defoe's use of ironic narration enhances the comedic effect. In Moll Flanders, the contrast between the older, penitent narrator and the younger, more impulsive and sinful character creates a sense of incongruity that is inherently humorous. In Robinson Crusoe, the ironic juxtaposition of Crusoe's initial despair and his eventual discovery of abundance on the desolate island creates a surprising and amusing twist.
While often subtle and intertwined with his social and political commentary, Defoe's humor is a significant aspect of his writing. His ability to craft witty situations, satirize societal norms, and employ ironic narration adds a layer of depth and engagement to his narratives, making them both entertaining and thought-provoking.
RELATIONSHIPS Daniel Defoe married Mary Tuffley on January 1, 1684, at St. Botolph Aldgate in London. Mary was the daughter of a London merchant, and she brought a substantial dowry of £3,700 to the marriage, which was a considerable sum at the time.
Their marriage lasted for 47 years until Defoe's death in 1731. While not much is known about Mary herself, she is believed to have been a loyal, capable, and devoted wife. However, the marriage may have faced challenges due to Defoe's recurring debts and political difficulties.
Daniel and Mary had eight children together, of whom six survived to maturity
MONEY AND FAME Daniel Defoe's entrepreneurial ventures were not always successful. He faced significant financial setbacks, including a bankruptcy in 1692 with debts exceeding £17,000.
His fortunes changed for a while with the publication of his satirical poem, "The True Born Englishman," in 1701. This work quickly became a bestseller in England and was considered the best-selling poem of its time.
However, financial difficulties continued to plague Defoe In 1703, while imprisoned, his business ventures collapsed, leading to further financial losses. This period forced him to turn to journalism as his primary source of income.
The publication of Robinson Crusoe on April 25, 1719 brought Defoe widespread fame and generated substantial profits for his publishers, exceeding £1000.
Even later in his life, Defoe faced financial challenges. In 1730, he was forced to flee from creditors who pursued debts dating back an astonishing forty years.
FOOD AND DRINK Daniel Defoe's writings, particularly Robinson Crusoe, provide insights into the food culture of the time, including knowledge of bread-making, cheese production, and meat preservation. He emphasizes the importance of a varied diet, highlighting Crusoe's efforts to cultivate crops and raise livestock on his isolated island. Defoe also demonstrates an awareness of the nutritional value of different foods, recognizing the significance of grains and meat in a balanced diet.
Regarding alcohol, Defoe was acutely aware of the prevalent drinking culture in England. He observed the rise in popularity of gin among the poor, commenting on the appeal of "Geneva" to the masses. While initially supportive of the liberalization of distilling, he later expressed concerns about the detrimental effects of excessive gin consumption, fearing it would lead to a decline in the health of the nation. His writings also mention various alcoholic beverages commonly consumed during his time, including canary, malmsey, sack, and tent wines.
Defoe's works reveal certain attitudes towards food and drink. He strongly advocated for moderation, particularly in alcohol consumption, warning against excessive drinking, especially during times of crisis. Food and drink also held significant cultural and social importance. In Robinson Crusoe, Defoe utilizes food as a means of demonstrating Crusoe's ingenuity and resourcefulness in adapting to his challenging environment. Furthermore, he acknowledges the medicinal beliefs of his time, recognizing the perceived health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption in warding off melancholy and illness.
MUSIC AND ARTS Defoe had an interest in painting. He reportedly did not hesitate to identify himself as an expert on painting, although his interest was not focused on "the thing itself." Defoe pProposed an academy of painting in his work "Augusta Triumphans" (1728).
Defoe admired craftsmanship, particularly in textiles, as noted in his travel writings.
LITERATURE Daniel Defoe possessed a remarkable ability to observe human nature. A prolific writer, he authored over 250 books and 500 written works across a diverse range of subjects, including history, biography, sociology, travel, manuals of conduct, economics, and political pamphlets. His dedication to his craft was extraordinary, even undertaking the demanding task of single-handedly producing a newspaper three times a week for six months – a feat that stands in stark contrast to Crusoe's reliance on Friday for assistance.
Daniel Defoe began his writing career in the late 17th century, initially focusing on political and social commentary. He published his first literary piece, a political pamphlet, in 1683. In 1697, he authored An Essay on Projects, outlining various social reforms. His satirical poem "The True-Born Englishman" (1701) challenged prevailing notions of racial purity in England.
In the early 18th century, Defoe established himself as a prominent journalist and political writer. He launched The Review in 1704, a tri-weekly periodical he largely wrote himself until 1713. His prolific output of political pamphlets often brought him into conflict with the authorities. He also served as a secret agent, using his writing to influence public opinion.
At the age of 59, Defoe embarked on a new phase of his career, turning his attention to fiction. In 1719, he published Robinson Crusoe, widely considered one of the first English novels. his groundbreaking novel, often considered the birth of the English novel, was inspired by the true story of Alexander Selkirk, a castaway who spent four years marooned on a remote island in the South Pacific, before being rescued on February 2, 1709 by English captain Woodes Rogers and the crew of the privateering ship Duke.
Defoe, a journalist by trade, had encountered Selkirk in Bristol and used his experiences as the foundation for his fictional narrative. The novel's immediate success, generating over £1000 in profits for its publishers, solidified Defoe's literary reputation.
The novel's enduring power lies in its exploration of human resilience, exemplified by the iconic scene of Crusoe's discovery of footprints on the otherwise deserted island.
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| Frontispiece of 1st edition of Robinson Cruose by Daniel Defoe |
Following the success of Robinson Crusoe, Defoe quickly penned a sequel, The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, and a subsequent volume, Serious Reflections, which offered a more philosophical reflection on the events of the first book.
In 1722, Defoe published Moll Flanders, a compelling tale of a woman navigating a life of crime and redemption. This novel, often considered controversial for its frank depiction of female sexuality, drew inspiration from the popular "Newgate Calendar," a collection of criminal biographies.
This was followed by several other notable works of fiction, including Colonel Jack (1722), A Journal of the Plague Year (1722), and Roxana (1724)
Defoe's literary output continued with A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724-26), one of the earliest travelogues of its kind.
NATURE He had a strong appreciation for geography, often describing landscapes and their utility in his travelogues.
PETS In 1692, Defoe purchased 70 civet cats for £850 as an investment. He established a civet cat farm in Newington Green, Stoke Newington. Defoe was known as a "Civet-Cat Merchant" due to this venture
The purpose of keeping civet cats was primarily commercial: Civet cats were prized for their musk, which was used in the perfume industry.The musk was obtained by scraping the cats' anal glands, a painful process that could be fatal if done too frequently.
Unfortunately, like many of his other entrepreneurial efforts, the civet cat business was not a lasting success.
HOBBIES AND SPORTS His hobbies revolved around writing, observing human behavior, and promoting political ideas.
SCIENCE AND MATHS Defoe was interested in practical sciences and economic theory, which he incorporated into his writings.
Defoe showed curiosity about scientific and technological advancements and wrote about various inventions and innovations in his works.
PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY As a zealous evangelical Puritan, Defoe's works often reflected his faith, In 1722 he wrote: "There has been no age since the foundation and formation of the Christian church that was as ever as bad as the age we live in now," lamenting the prevalence of social ills such as cockfighting, adultery among leaders, and mass drunkenness.
Defoe's works often reflected his faith and belief in divine providence. He was a zealous advocate for religious tolerance and vehemently opposed ecclesiastical intolerance.
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe exemplifies the Protestant work ethic. Even marooned on a desert island, Crusoe adheres to this ethos, diligently managing his resources, working tirelessly, and reaping the rewards of his labor. This industriousness is underpinned by his unwavering faith in God's favor upon those who demonstrate a strong work ethic and financial prudence.
Defoe's satirical poem, "The True Born Englishman," poignantly captures the hypocrisy of religious institutions:
"Whenever God erects a house of prayer,
The devil always builds a chapel there,
And 'twill be found upon examination,
The latter has the largest congregation."
This excerpt highlights Defoe's sharp wit and his critical and his critical assessment of religious institutions and their practices.
POLITICS Defoe was a vocal and often controversial figure, never shying away from expressing his opinions. He was a staunch defender of William III through his insightful political pamphlets.
He subsequently served as a secret agent for successive monarchs, including William III, Queen Anne, and King George I. His clandestine activities encompassed a wide range of assignments. He infiltrated Jacobite groups in Scotland, gathering intelligence on their activities and advocating for the union of Scotland and England. Notably, Defoe's loyalties were not always fixed; he is known to have served both the Whig and Tory factions at different times.
SCANDAL Daniel Defoe was a controversial figure who frequently clashed with the authorities. His outspoken views led to numerous imprisonments. He spent six months in Newgate Prison in 1702 after publishing "The Shortest Way with the Dissenters," a satirical pamphlet that ironically advocated for the persecution of Dissenters. This imprisonment, however, led to an unexpected turn of events. Robert Harley, the Speaker of the House of Commons, secured Defoe's release, likely on the condition that he become a secret agent and government propagandist.
Defoe's outspokenness also landed him in the pillory on three separate occasions. During one such incident, a torrential thunderstorm provided a surprising twist. Instead of the usual barrage of fruit and vegetables, the sympathetic crowd showered him with flowers. Undeterred, Defoe used the opportunity to sell copies of the pamphlet that had landed him in this predicament.
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| Daniel Defoe in the pillory, 1862 line engraving by James Charles Armytage after Eyre Crowe |
MILITARY RECORD Daniel Defoe's life was intertwined with the tumultuous political landscape of late 17th and early 18th-century England. He participated in the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion in 1685, managing to escape the devastating defeat at the Battle of Sedgemoor.
HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS The stress of his tumultuous career, marked by bankruptcies, imprisonments, and political controversy, undoubtedly took a toll on his physical and mental well-being. Imprisonments, particularly his time in Newgate, were harsh and often came with poor nutrition, exposure to illness, and physical confinement, which could weaken a person's constitution. Despite these challenges, Defoe demonstrated remarkable resilience, continuing to write prolifically even under extreme pressure and adversity.
Hs death at the age of 71 suggests that he managed to maintain a relatively robust constitution for someone of his era.
HOMES Daniel Defoe lived in various locations throughout his life, with two residences standing out in particular.
He resided at 95 Stoke Newington Church Street during a significant period of his writing career. This house, likely built around 1700, served as the birthplace of his most famous work, Robinson Crusoe, in 1719. Defoe lived here in relative comfort, owning a large house and keeping a coach. He shared this home with his three daughters, who were renowned for their beauty, education, and conduct. However, this period of prosperity was not to last.
In stark contrast, Defoe's final years were spent in more humble lodgings at Ropemaker's Alley, Moorfields, not far from his birthplace in Cripplegate. He died in these lodgings likely while hiding from creditors due to financial difficulties. This marked a significant decline in his fortunes compared to the relative comfort he had enjoyed in Stoke Newington.
TRAVEL Daniel Defoe was a seasoned traveler whose journeys played a crucial role in shaping his worldview and influencing his writing.
In his early career as a hosier merchant in the 1680s, Defoe embarked on extensive travels across western Europe, visiting countries such as Holland, France, and Spain. These journeys not only served his commercial interests but also fostered a lifelong fascination with travel and observation.
Later, while working for politician Robert Harley in the early 18th century and during his time as a government operative, Defoe continued to travel extensively throughout Britain and Western Europe. These experiences, combined with his earlier mercantile travels, provided a wealth of knowledge that he later drew upon for his celebrated travelogue, A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain.
A Tour reveals Defoe's keen observations of both the industrial and natural landscapes of Britain. He extolled the virtues of industrial progress, praising the textile factories of Halifax as "the most agreeable sight I ever saw." In contrast, he viewed the unspoilt countryside around Lancaster with a degree of apprehension, describing it with "a kind of unhospitable terror" and noting its lack of economic activity.
Defoe's travels significantly impacted his literary output. His experiences abroad likely informed the foreign settings and cultural details found in novels such as Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders. Moreover, his detailed observations of British towns, industries, and landscapes in A Tour provide a valuable and insightful snapshot of early 18th-century Britain.
DEATH Daniel Defoe died on April 24, 1731, at the age of approximately 71, in Ropemakers Alley, Moorfields, London. His final days were marked by financial hardship, and he likely sought refuge in these lodgings to avoid creditors. Defoe died in relative obscurity, a stark contrast to the enduring fame his works would achieve posthumously. The official cause of death was recorded as "lethargy," although it is suspected that he may have suffered a stroke.
Defoe was interred in Bunhill Fields Burial Ground, a nonconformist cemetery just outside the City of London. Initially, his grave was marked by a simple headstone. According to an unconfirmed rumor, he may have been buried under the surname "Dabow" due to a clerical error by the gravedigger.
It was not until nearly 140 years after his death that Defoe received a more fitting memorial. In 1870, a public appeal, spearheaded by the children's magazine Christian World, raised £150 from 1,700 contributors to fund a new monument. The resulting marble obelisk, designed by C.C. Creeke and carved by sculptor Samuel Horner, was unveiled on September 16, 1870, with three of Defoe's great-granddaughters in attendance.
Today, visitors to Bunhill Fields can see Defoe's impressive obelisk, a lasting testament to his enduring literary legacy.
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| Bunhill Fields monument detail by Edwardx Wikipedia |
APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Daniel Defoe’s legacy, particularly through Robinson Crusoe, has left an indelible mark on popular culture. His novel has inspired adaptations, references, and reinterpretations across a wide range of media:
1. MUSIC
Art of Noise: The 1989 LP Below the Waste includes a track titled "Robinson Crusoe," blending the novel's themes with the band's avant-garde electronic sound.
Cud: The British indie band released the single "Robinson Crusoe" in 1990, which reached #86 on the UK singles chart, showing the enduring resonance of Defoe's character in modern pop music.
Ragtime Standard: The 1916 Broadway show Robinson Crusoe Junior featured the novelty ragtime song "Where Did Robinson Crusoe Go with Friday on a Saturday Night?" Its playful title captured the humor and cultural penetration of Defoe's story into early 20th-century entertainment.
Offenbach Operetta: French composer Jacques Offenbach adapted Robinson Crusoe into an operetta, adding a whimsical and melodic interpretation to Defoe’s classic adventure.
2. FILM AND TELEVISION
Man Friday (1975): Peter O’Toole starred as Robinson Crusoe opposite Richard Roundtree as Friday in an unconventional retelling of the story. The film’s unique twist featured the pair hang gliding, symbolizing the breaking of traditional boundaries in their relationship.
Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964): A science fiction retelling set on Mars, this version modernized the concept of isolation and survival by transposing the story into an extraterrestrial setting.
The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1952): Irish actor Dan O’Herlihy delivered an Oscar-nominated performance as Crusoe in a traditional adaptation. O’Herlihy’s nuanced portrayal brought authenticity to the character's resilience and resourcefulness.
Television Adaptations: Over the decades, Robinson Crusoe has been retold in various forms, including animated series, miniseries, and feature films, highlighting the story’s universality and appeal.
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