Captain James Cook

NAME Captain James Cook

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Captain James Cook is celebrated as an English explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his detailed mapping of the Pacific Ocean, including Australia, New Zealand, and the Hawaiian Islands, and his advancement of scientific and geographical knowledge.

BIRTH James Cook was born on November 7, 1728, in a two-room mud and thatch cottage in the village of Marton, which is now part of Middlesbrough, England.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Cook was the second of nine children. His father, James Cook, was an agricultural laborer who rose to become a bailiff and landowner. The family eventually moved to Great Ayton, where his father worked for the Lord of the Manor.

CHILDHOOD Cook grew up in a rural environment, and his early years were marked by modest living conditions and strong family values. He moved with his family to the village of Great Ayton at age eight, where his father’s employer provided for his schooling.

EDUCATION James Cook attended Postgates School in Great Ayton. This historic schoolhouse now stands as a museum. Thanks to the generosity of the local Lord of the Manor, who funded Cook's education, he was able to pass his exams and become a ship's mate.

At the age of 18, Cook began an apprenticeship with a Whitby shipwright firm. It was during this time that he independently delved into mathematics, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry, and navigation – skills that would prove invaluable in his future role as a ship captain.

CAREER RECORD 1744 When Cook was 16, he was apprenticed to a shopkeeper in the North Yorkshire fishing village of Staithes. According to tradition, it is during his time there that Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out the shop window

1746 Apprenticed to a Quaker ship-owner's firm, Walker's of Whitby. 

1755 Joined Navy as able seaman on the "Eagle" "To try his fortune" 

1757 Given command of The Eagle

1759 Takes part in surveying the Saint Lawrence River in Canada. 

1760-67 Surveys islands off Newfoundland and others off the East Coast of Canada. 

1768-1780 Cook led three major voyages to the Pacific, greatly expanding European knowledge of the region.

APPEARANCE Captain James Cook was a towering figure, both literally and figuratively. At over six feet tall, he possessed a striking appearance that was both distinctive and somewhat austere. His dark brown hair, often tied back, framed a long face with high cheekbones, a legacy of his Scottish heritage. His piercing brown eyes, framed by prominent eyebrows, conveyed a sense of intelligence and determination. Despite his good looks, Cook's plain demeanor and serious countenance often overshadowed his physical attractiveness.

Portrait by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775

FASHION Cook was practical in his attire, dressing in the standard uniform of a Royal Navy officer. His clothing reflected his disciplined and utilitarian approach to life.

CHARACTER A bluff northerner who never swore, Cook was stalwart, intelligent, industrious, determined, decisive and resourceful. He had a reputation for discipline, as well as a respect for science and exploration.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Though primarily serious and focused on his missions, Cook’s writings reveal a dry wit and appreciation for the lighter side of his journeys.

RELATIONSHIPS Captain James Cook and Elizabeth Batts were married on December 21, 1762, at St Margaret's Church in Barking, Essex. Elizabeth Batts was the daughter of Samuel Batts, a mentor of Cook's and the keeper of the Bell Inn at Wapping. At the time of their marriage, James Cook was 34 years old, while Elizabeth was 20, making him 14 years her senior. Cook was a master in the Royal Navy but had not yet held his first independent command.

Despite being married for 17 years, Cook and Elizabeth spent only about four years together in total due to his long voyages of exploration. Their marriage, while marked by long separations, was described as a love match, with many letters exchanged between them (though Elizabeth destroyed these before her death.

Captain James Cook and his wife Elizabeth Batts had six children: James, Nathaniel, Elizabeth, Joseph, George, and Hugh. Cook returned from first voyage in 1771 to find Joseph and George had died in his absence. Their daughter, Elizabeth, died at the age of four. Nathaniel, their second son, was lost at sea at the age of 16. Hugh, their youngest son, succumbed to scarlet fever at the age of 17. Their eldest son, James, drowned at the age of 31 while serving in the Royal Navy.

Elizabeth Cook outlived all of her children and her husband, passing away in 1835 at the age of 9324. Due to the early deaths of all their children, Captain James Cook has no direct descendants.

MONEY AND FAME Cook became a national hero after returning in 1771 from his first Pacific voyage. He was presented to King George III and made a member of the Royal Society and received the Royal Society's prestigious Copley Medal for his achievements .

He was celebrated for his navigational and cartographic skills, and for changing the map of the world more than any other single man in history 

Cook was largely indifferent to material wealth. His legacy was built on his contributions to navigation and exploration.

FOOD AND DRINK To combat scurvy, a debilitating disease common among sailors, Captain Cook introduced dietary changes on his voyages. He mandated the consumption of lime and lemon juice, carrot marmalade, and sauerkraut, though the latter was unpopular due to its German origins. Sailors who refused to eat these foods were punished with flogging.

Cook also pioneered a form of early instant soup, a meat extract that was boiled until it reached a glue-like consistency. This "portable soup" was intended to provide essential nutrients and combat malnutrition. However, some sailors were reluctant to consume this unusual food and faced disciplinary action as a result.

During his 1773 voyage, Cook introduced early forms of brewing to New Zealand. Using unconventional ingredients like tea leaves and spruce, he created a unique type of beer.

MUSIC AND ARTS Captain Cook was one of the early explorers to include professional artists on his voyages. This practice was not entirely new, but Cook's expeditions were notable for their emphasis on scientific documentation, including visual records

LITERATURE Captain Cook meticulously recorded his voyages in detailed journals. While these journals were eventually published, they often underwent significant editing before reaching the public.

First Voyage: John Hawkesworth's three-volume Account of the Voyages (1773) covered Cook's first voyage but was a heavily edited version of Cook's original journal.

Second Voyage: Cook's own two-volume Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round the World (1777) was more directly based on his writings.

Third Voyage: A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean (1784) was published posthumously, combining Cook's journal entries with those of James King.

Cook's journals were often heavily edited before publication, with individuals like Reverend John Douglas overseeing the editing process for the third voyage.

In the 20th century, J.C. Beaglehole produced a comprehensive edition of The Journals of Captain James Cook (1955-1967), which is considered a more accurate representation of Cook's original writings.

Many of Cook's original journal manuscripts are preserved in institutions such as the British Library.

Cook appears in various literary works, both factual and fictional. He's often represented as a tragic hero or as a symbol of the Age of Exploration. Some works critique his legacy in terms of colonialism, while others praise his navigational achievements.

NATURE Cook was deeply interested in the natural world and helped introduce European audiences to Pacific flora and fauna. He often collaborated with naturalists like Joseph Banks on his journeys.

PETS Captain James Cook's first voyage on the Endeavour included a variety of livestock to sustain the crew during their long journey. Sheep, pigs, goats, and chickens were brought aboard to provide fresh meat, eggs, and milk.

One particularly famous animal was "The Well-Travelled Goat," a seasoned traveler that had already circumnavigated the globe with Samuel Wallis. This goat, owned by Sir Joseph Banks, provided a reliable source of fresh milk throughout the voyage. After the expedition, it was rewarded with a lifetime of grazing and a silver collar inscribed by Dr. Samuel Johnson.

In addition to livestock, Cook often took other animals on his voyages, including cows, horses, peacocks, turkeys, geese, and ducks. These animals were not only for consumption but were also used as gifts for local chiefs or to establish breeding populations in the lands he visited.

The presence of these animals on board posed significant challenges for the crew, as they had to care for them in the confined space of the ship while crossing vast oceans.

Cook famously received a tortoise as a gift from the King of Tonga in 1773, which lived until 1966.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Cook recorded the Polynesian sport of surfing in Tahiti and Hawaii. He was introduced to the sport by the Hawaiians, who saw him as connected to Lono, the god of surfing.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Cook’s self-taught knowledge in mathematics and astronomy allowed him to navigate with precision and contribute to scientific understanding. His Pacific voyages included observations of the transit of Venus, which were used to calculate the Earth’s distance from the sun.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Captain James Cook was raised as an Anglican and considered himself a member of the Church of England, though his faith was often described as "nominal." His son Hugh was even destined for a career in the Anglican ministry before his untimely death.

Cook was known for his high moral standards and good character. He was a man of few words, avoiding profanity and encouraging a respectful environment on his ships. He was compassionate, moderate, and just in his dealings with others.

While not overtly religious, Cook respected religious practices and traditions. He required his crew to dress in clean clothes on Sundays and occasionally conducted divine services. He also named various geographical features after Christian holy days and concepts.

Cook's interactions with indigenous peoples were generally respectful and civil. He adhered to instructions to cultivate friendly relationships with local populations and recognized them as fellow human beings.

Ultimately, Cook's primary focus was on exploration, scientific discovery, and cartography. While he acknowledged the importance of religion and morality, his practical approach to exploration often took precedence over religious rituals and ceremonies.

POLITICS Cook served the British Crown, supporting colonial expansion, although he often showed respect toward the cultures he encountered.

SCANDAL Though respected, Cook’s enforcement of discipline, such as flogging crew members who refused to eat the portable soup, was seen as controversial.

MILITARY RECORD When the Seven Years' War erupted between Britain and France in 1756, James Cook enlisted in the Royal Navy. In 1757, he was commissioned as Commander of the Eagle and tasked with sailing to Louisbourg to aid in the attack on French Canada. During this campaign, he was responsible for conducting a detailed hydrographic survey of the St. Lawrence River.

Cook's exceptional skills in charting the St. Lawrence River in 1759 proved instrumental for General Wolfe's army. His accurate maps and navigational expertise played a crucial role in the successful landing at the Heights of Abraham, a decisive moment in the war.

Cook’s naval career was marked by loyalty and discipline. He was a skilled navigator and demonstrated strategic acumen during naval engagements.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS To combat scurvy, a devastating disease that plagued sailors on long voyages, Cook employed a clever strategy. He placed a large barrel of sauerkraut on the ship's deck and labeled it "For the Use of the Captain and Officers Only." This ruse successfully encouraged the crew to consume the sauerkraut, which was rich in vitamin C and essential for preventing scurvy. Additionally, Cook prioritized cleanliness and hygiene, ensuring that the crew had clean living quarters, bedding, and clothing. As a result of these preventive measures, only one sailor succumbed to scurvy during his three voyages.

In contrast, his first voyage to the Pacific in 1768 was marked by a significant loss of life due to scurvy, with 41 of his 98 crew members perishing. By 1795, the importance of citrus fruits in preventing scurvy was widely recognized, and the British Navy began issuing lemon juice to its sailors.

By the time of his final voyage to Hawaii in 1779, Cook was already suffering from declining health. He endured chronic illness, particularly a debilitating bowel ailment,.

HOMES Captain James Cook's life journey was marked by several homes, each reflecting a different stage of his life.

Aireyholme Farm, Great Ayton: Cook's family moved here in 1736 when he was eight years old. His father worked as a farm bailiff, and the family likely lived in a modest cottage near the main farm buildings.

Staithes: At sixteen, Cook moved to the coastal village of Staithes to apprentice under a grocer and haberdasher. He lived and worked in his master's shop.

Whitby: In 1746, Cook began his seafaring career in Whitby. He lodged with his master, John Walker, a Quaker ship owner, in a room above Walker's house on Grape Lane. This building now houses the Captain Cook Memorial Museum.

London: After joining the Royal Navy, Cook acquired a house at 88 Mile End Road, Tower Hamlets, which became his family home during his time off sea.

It's important to note that the cottage now known as "Cook's Cottage" which was later transported to  Melbourne, Australia, is actually his parents' later retirement home, built in 1755. It's not the original cottage where Cook spent his childhood. The exact location of his childhood home near Aireyholme Farm remains uncertain, despite recent archaeological investigations.

TRAVEL As a young man, James Cook apprenticed under John Walker, a Whitby ship owner. During this time, he sailed on coal ships to the icy Baltic Sea, honing his navigational skills and creating detailed charts.

First Voyage (1768-1771):

Cook's first significant voyage was aboard the Endeavour, a converted collier. He sailed to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus, and then explored the coasts of New Zealand, proving it was two islands. He continued to Australia's east coast, charting the Great Barrier Reef and claiming the land for Britain as New South Wales.

Cook landing at Botany Bay (Kamay)

Second Voyage (1772-1775): On his second voyage, commanding the Resolution and Adventure, Cook explored the Southern Ocean, searching for a hypothetical southern continent. He discovered Easter Island, New Caledonia, and Norfolk Island, and became the first to cross the Antarctic Circle.

Third Voyage (1776-1779): Cook's final voyage aimed to find the Northwest Passage from the Pacific side. He explored the coast of British Columbia and Siberia but was thwarted by the ice of the Bering Strait. His expedition then turned to Hawaii, where, tragically, he met his end in a confrontation with local islanders.

DEATH Captain James Cook's life of exploration came to a tragic end on February 14, 1779, at Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii. In an attempt to recover a stolen longboat, Cook made the fateful decision to take hostage Kalaniʻōpuʻu, the ruling chief of the island. This action sparked a violent confrontation. Cook was struck on the head and stabbed in the ensuing chaos, ultimately succumbing to his injuries.

The Hawaiians, following their funeral customs for high-ranking individuals, took Cook's body to their village. These rituals involved removing the flesh from the bones, a practice associated with high mana (spiritual power) in Hawaiian culture. The flesh was likely consumed in a ceremony, while the bones were treated with reverence and possibly hidden in a cave.

Cook's crew eventually recovered some of his remains, which were given a traditional naval burial at sea in Kealakekua Bay on February 21st.

News traveled slowly in the 18th century, and it likely wouldn't have reached England until well after Cook's passing. However, historical records do show that Cook's death was widely mourned in Britain, with him being hailed as a national hero. King George III is said to have wept when heard of cook's passing.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Cook’s life and expeditions have been depicted in numerous books, documentaries, and films. His contributions to exploration continue to inspire media portrayals. Here are a few notable mentions:

Statue in London – A statue of Cook, crafted by Sir Thomas Brock in 1914, stands in The Mall near Admiralty Arch. The statue shows him in a somewhat unconventional, "unseamanlike" pose with one foot on a coil of rope, a stance that has intrigued viewers and raised questions about its intended symbolism. This statue portrays him not as the vigorous seaman he was known to be, but rather as a dignified figure befitting the urban, stately setting.

Documentaries and Films – Cook has been the subject of many documentaries that explore his voyages to the Pacific, including his encounters with indigenous peoples. Documentaries such as Captain Cook: Obsession and Discovery (2007) take a deeper look into his life, his personal struggles, and his impact on exploration. He also features in films like The Explorers (1984), where his life and travels are dramatized.

Television Series – Cook has appeared as a character in television series, like in Horrible Histories, where his voyages and discoveries are presented with humorous twists to engage younger audiences. More factual portrayals have appeared in educational series that celebrate his mapping of Newfoundland, Australia, and New Zealand.

Museums and Exhibitions – Cook’s journeys are a staple in exhibitions on exploration and colonial history. The British Museum and the National Maritime Museum in the UK often feature exhibits or artifacts from Cook’s voyages, like the journals, maps, and items collected from indigenous communities.

Commemoration in Stamps and Coins – Cook has appeared on numerous postage stamps and coins worldwide, notably in countries connected to his explorations, such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.

ACHIEVEMENTS Cook’s achievements include charting and mapping previously unknown territories, introducing the word “taboo” to the English language from Tahitian culture, and pioneering practices that prevented scurvy, which helped transform naval health practices. He became the first European to sail below the Antarctic Circle and explore New Zealand's coast.