Hernán Cortés

NAME Hernán Cortés

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large parts of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century

BIRTH Hernán Cortés was born in 1485 in Medellín, in the southeast of Extremadura, southwestern Spain.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Cortés was the only child of Martín Cortés, a military captain in the infantry, and Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, he was a second cousin of Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of the Inca Empire in Peru.

CHILDHOOD Little is known about Cortés' early childhood, but his family background was modestly noble, and they envisioned a future for him in law or the church.

EDUCATION Cortés studied law at the University of Salamanca like his grandfather. However, in 1501, he abandoned his studies to the disappointment of his parents to pursue a life of exploration and adventure.

CAREER RECORD Cortés initially worked as a soldier and farmer before sailing under Diego Velázquez to help conquer Cuba in 1511. 

1504 Makes first trip to the West Indies (Santo Domingo)

1511 Elected alcalde, a sort of mayor/judge of Santiago the then capital of Cuba.

1519  Led the famous 1519 expedition to Mexico, culminating in the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. 

1522 Promoted to Governor and Captain-General of Mexico after the sacking of Tenochtitlan.

1526 Sacked as governor of Mexico so ruthless are his methods and spent the remainder of his life pleading his cause.

1530 Returned to Mexico as Captain General

1541 Cortés returned to Spain, 

APPEARANCE Cortés's appearance evolved over time. In his youth, he was reportedly pale and delicate. However, as he matured and embarked on his legendary conquests, his physical appearance transformed, mirroring his growing power and influence.

He possessed a well-proportioned, sturdy physique and a face that could convey both warmth and severity. His hair and beard, though sparse, were a deep, inky black. His complexion, often described as somewhat pale, lent him an air of seriousness. The Aztecs initially perceived him as a divine figure.

18th-century portrait of Cortés based on the one sent by the conqueror to Paolo Giovio,

FASHION As a Spanish conquistador and later, Governor of New Spain, Cortés adhered to the fashion of the time. He likely wore a doublet, breeches, a cape, and a hat, often adorned with feathers. His attire, like his demeanor, was a reflection of his high social status.

Cortés destroyed the Aztec fashion industry, replacing jaguar skins and feathered cloaks with European textiles. He introduced silk production to the Americas.

CHARACTER Cortés was ambitious, determined, and ruthless. He was also deeply religious, carrying a statuette of the Virgin Mary at all times and attending Mass daily.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Historical records do not emphasize Cortés' sense of humor, but his sharp wit likely aided his political and military maneuvers.

RELATIONSHIPS Hernán Cortés was married twice during his lifetime: Cortés married Catalina Suárez (also known as Catalina Xuárez or Juárez) in Cuba around 1516. This marriage was initially reluctant on Cortés's part and occurred under pressure from Governor Diego Velázquez. The couple remained childless, and Catalina's death in 1522 under mysterious circumstances marked the end of their union.

In 1529, Cortés married Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana de Zúñiga, the niece of the Duke of Bejar. This marriage produced three children: Don Martín Cortés, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca, Doña María Cortés and Doña Catalina Cortés.

Sculpture of Juana de Zúñiga for her tomb by CarlosVdeHabsburgo

Beyond his formal marriages, Cortés had several significant relationships:

La Malinche (Doña Marina): He had a son named Martín Cortés, often referred to as "El Mestizo", by his Indian noblewoman, counsellor and translator, the beautiful Dona Marina who had been taken prisoner. She became his constant companion and her information, translations and advice were invaluable to Cortés. 

Isabel Moctezuma: Another domestic partner mentioned in historical records.

Cortés's marital and romantic relationships were integral to his personal life and political career, influencing his social status, alliances, and legacy both in the New World and Spain. His complex network of relationships, including his connections to Indigenous women, shaped his experiences and actions during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.

He left his many Indian and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers.

MONEY AND FAME Originally seeking his fortune in gold, Cortés became wealthy through the conquest of Mexico, earning titles such as Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. Despite his riches, he spent later years pleading for recognition from the Spanish crown.

Cortés, once a formidable conquistador and a symbol of Spanish power in the New World, met a tragic end, dying in poverty and debt. Despite his early successes and the vast wealth he had amassed, his later years were marked by financial hardship, legal battles, and disillusionment.

One of the primary factors contributing to Cortés's decline was his mounting debt. In 1524, he wrote to King Charles V, confessing to owing over 500 ounces of gold, a significant sum at the time. This debt, coupled with his dwindling financial resources, forced him to take desperate measures, such as pawning his wife's jewelry to fund his later expeditions.

In addition to his financial woes, Cortés was plagued by endless legal battles that consumed his time, energy, and resources. These legal disputes, combined with the loss of royal favor, further eroded his wealth and status. As a result, he found himself increasingly isolated and marginalized, his once-promising future fading into obscurity.

Cortés participated in the unsuccessful Spanish expedition against Algiers in 1541, losing much of his remaining wealth and experiencing shipwreck. He died in poverty in 1547 and his tragic end serves as a stark reminder of the impermanence of wealth and power, and the harsh realities of life for even the most celebrated figures.

Cortés' infamous quote to the Aztecs, "We suffer from a disease of the heart which is only cured by gold," encapsulates the European obsession with wealth that fueled the Age of Exploration. This insatiable greed, shared by figures like Pedro de Cieza de León, who was inspired by the sight of Inca gold in Seville, ultimately led to the exploitation and suffering of countless Indigenous peoples.

FOOD AND DRINK Hernán Cortés introduced several elements of Aztec culture to Spain. One such import was a drink known as "chocolati," made from cacao beans, which the Aztecs called "xocati." Originally, this drink was spiced with chili and musk, a flavor profile that Cortés initially found unappealing. However, by 1527, he had grown to appreciate the beverage and kept a chocolate pot on his desk.

With the addition of sugar, vanilla, and cinnamon, the drink was transformed into a sweet and aromatic beverage that quickly became a favorite among the Spanish aristocracy. It is likely that Cortés also introduced the Spanish to tortillas, a staple food of the Aztec diet.

Another significant introduction was the vanilla bean. The Aztecs regarded vanilla as a sacred and divine plant, with legends tracing its origins back to the early days of the world when gods still walked the earth. According to one myth, the goddess Xanat, in love with a Totonac youth, transformed herself into a vanilla vine to remain on Earth with him and his people. Cortés sent a consignment of these precious vanilla beans back to Spain, where they would eventually become a prized ingredient in European cuisine and perfumery.

MUSIC AND ARTS Cortés was focused on practical matters related to colonization and expansion of Spanish influence rather than artistic or cultural pursuits.

LITERATURE Cortés authored Letters to Charles V (Cartas de Relación), detailing his conquests, which are key historical documents. 

The Conquest of Mexico (1843) is a landmark historical work by William H. Prescott, which romanticizes and dramatizes Cortés’ campaign.

Captain from Castile (1945) is a historical novel by Samuel Shellabarger featuring a fictionalized depiction of Cortés and his exploits.

Cortés and Montezuma (1990) is a children’s book by Seymour Rosenthal, which narrates the conquest for a younger audience.

NATURE He introduced European agricultural practices to the Americas, including silkworm farming and vine cultivation.

PETS Cortés horses, vital to his conquest, were his closest animal companions. When Cortés's horse, El Morzillo, fell ill in 1524, he was left with the Maya Indians. Unfamiliar with horses, the Maya revered the majestic creature as a divine being. They had never seen a horse before the arrival of the conquistadors, who were accustomed to riding deer.

Similarly, the Aztecs were awestruck by the sight of Cortés and his mounted soldiers. The sight of men riding colossal, armored beasts struck fear and awe into the hearts of the Aztec warriors. They believed these mounted soldiers to be divine beings, a belief that contributed to their initial hesitation to resist the Spanish advance.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Cortés' main pursuits were exploration and military campaigns rather than recreational hobbies.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Cortés relied on advanced European navigation and military technology, introducing these innovations to the Americas.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Cortés was a devout Catholic who sought to convert indigenous peoples, often by force. Upon arriving in Vera Cruz, Mexico, Cortés was initially greeted as a god by the Aztec emperor Montezuma. The Aztecs believed that their god, Quetzalcoatl, had vanished across the Atlantic and was prophesied to return in the year Cortés arrived. This belief, coupled with Cortés's arrival by sea and his fair skin and beard, led the Aztecs to mistake him for the returning deity.

The Aztec religion relied heavily on human sacrifice to appease their gods. It's estimated that around 1% of their population of 250,000 people were sacrificed annually, with the victims' limbs often cooked and consumed as part of the ritual.

In contrast to the Aztecs' bloody practices, Cortés presented himself as a devout Christian. He claimed to be an ambassador of the Spanish king, sent to spread the true religion and end the practice of human sacrifice. Despite his deceitful intentions, Cortés was genuinely devoted to the Virgin Mary and carried a statue of her at all times. He was known to pray daily and attend Mass regularly.

POLITICS Cortés played a pivotal role in expanding Spanish influence, laying the groundwork for colonial governance in Mexico.

SCANDAL Hernán Cortés's conquest of the Aztec Empire, while a remarkable feat of military strategy, was often brutal and exploitative.

1. Betrayal and Violence: Initially welcomed by the Aztec emperor Montezuma, Cortés soon revealed his true intentions. After receiving lavish gifts of gold and other treasures, he responded with acts of violence, using cannons and crossbows against the unarmed Aztecs.

2. Massacre and Flight: In a particularly heinous act, Cortés's deputy, Pedro de Alvarado, orchestrated a massacre of hundreds of unarmed Aztec nobles during a religious festival. This betrayal led to the infamous "Noche Triste," when the Spanish were forced to flee Tenochtitlan under the relentless attacks of the enraged Aztecs.

3. Ruthless Pursuit of Gold: Cortés's obsession with gold led to countless atrocities. He tortured the captured Aztec emperor Cuauhtémoc, forcing him to reveal the location of hidden treasure. This act of cruelty, along with other violent excesses, tarnished Cortés's reputation and haunted him for the rest of his life.

4. Decline and Madness: As his power waned and his reputation suffered, Cortés became increasingly paranoid and unstable. He embarked on a reckless expedition to Honduras, further alienating his supporters and damaging his health. His final years were marked by legal troubles, financial ruin, and a descent into madness.

Cortés's legacy is a complex one, marked by both extraordinary achievements and horrific acts of violence. His story serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked power and the destructive consequences of greed and cruelty.

MILITARY RECORD In 1511, Cortés demonstrated his military prowess by participating in the Spanish conquest of Cuba.

In 1519, with a small force of 650 men, 16 horses, and limited weaponry, Cortés embarked on his expedition to Mexico. To prevent retreat and instill a sense of determination, he famously ordered his ships burned upon landing. The Aztecs, unfamiliar with such advanced weaponry and tactics, were no match for the Spanish and their Native American allies. Cortés forged an alliance with the Tlaxcalans, a powerful indigenous group who provided him with a significant number of troops, ultimately swelling his army to an estimated 80,000 to 200,000 soldiers.

After a grueling four-month siege, Cortés and his army captured the magnificent city of Tenochtitlan in 1521. By blockading the city by land and water, the Spanish deprived the Aztecs of vital resources, including drinking water. The fallen Aztec capital was then rebuilt as Mexico City, the foundation of Spanish colonial rule in the region.

 The 1521 Fall of Tenochtitlan by Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés, 

Following his conquest of the Aztec Empire, Cortés spent the years between 1530 and 1540 consolidating Spanish control over Mexico. He established a colonial administration and engaged in various expeditions to explore and subdue other parts of the region.

In 1541, Cortés returned to Spain, where he participated in a naval campaign against the Barbary pirates in Algiers. He later led an expedition to the Yucatán Peninsula to conquer the Maya civilization.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS The Spanish conquest of Mexico brought not only military conflict but also devastating disease. Cortés and his men inadvertently introduced smallpox, measles, and influenza to the indigenous population, who had no immunity to these foreign pathogens. By 1545, these diseases had decimated the native population, reducing it from an estimated 25 million to a mere 2 million.

Despite the destruction and suffering he caused, Cortés also made some positive contributions to the region. In 1523, he established a hospital in Mexico City, which remains the oldest hospital in the Western Hemisphere. This institution provided healthcare to both the Spanish colonists and the indigenous population, marking a significant step in the development of medical infrastructure in the region.

Despite his active life, Cortés suffered injuries and pleurisy, which ultimately contributed to his death.

HOMES Spain (1485-1504): Cortés was born and raised in Medellín, Extremadura, Spain. He left his homeland in 1504 to seek fortune in the New World.

After conquering the Aztec Empire, Cortés built his capital, Mexico City, on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. He destroyed Aztec temples and replaced them with Christian churches.

In 1526, Cortés built an imposing residence for himself in Cuernavaca, a region close to the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings.

Cortés was granted the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca in 1529, which included vast lands in the broad fertile plains of southern Mexico. 

After being neglected by the court following the 1541 Algiers expedition, Cortés retired to a small estate. .

TRAVEL Hernán Cortés undertook several significant voyages and expeditions during his lifetime:

In 1504, at age 19, Cortés sailed from Spain to the New World, settling in Hispaniola.

In 1511, he joined Diego Velázquez's expedition to conquer Cuba.

In February 1519, Cortés embarked on his most famous expedition, sailing from Cuba to the Yucatán Peninsula with 11 ships and over 500 men. After landing in Mexico, Cortés marched inland towards Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, arriving there on November 8, 1519.

In 1520, Cortés briefly left Tenochtitlán to confront a Spanish force sent to arrest him, before returning to the Aztec capital.

In 1524, Cortés led an expedition to Honduras to quell a rebellion against his authority.

In 1536, Cortés explored northwestern Mexico, including Baja California and Mexico's Pacific coast. This was his last major expedition.

Throughout these travels, Cortés demonstrated his ambition, military skill, and determination to expand Spanish control in the Americas, culminating in his conquest of the Aztec Empire and the establishment of New Spain.

DEATH Hernán Cortés died from a case of pleurisy on December 2, 1547, aged 62, in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Spain. His final resting place, however, has been the subject of much historical intrigue and controversy.

After his death, Cortés's body was moved multiple times, reflecting the changing political and social climate of the era. Initially buried in Seville, his remains were later transferred to Mexico. Over the centuries, they were exhumed, reburied, and hidden, often due to shifts in public opinion and political turmoil.

In the 19th century, as anti-Spanish sentiment grew in Mexico, Cortés's remains were hidden to protect them from desecration. It wasn't until 1946 that his final resting place was definitively identified. Today, his tomb, marked by a simple plaque, lies within the Church of the Immaculate Conception and Jesus Nazareno in Mexico City.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Cortés' exploits have inspired numerous historical works, novels, and portrayals in films and television, often emphasizing his dramatic role in history.

1. FILM AND TELEVISION 

Captain from Castile (1947) A historical drama based on Samuel Shellabarger’s novel, featuring a fictionalized version of Cortés during the conquest of Mexico.

The Other Conquest (1998) (La Otra Conquista) A Mexican film exploring the aftermath of the Spanish conquest, where Cortés is a central figure.

Conquistadors (2000) A BBC documentary series by Michael Wood, in which Cortés’ life and campaigns are examined in detail.

Hernán (2019) A Spanish-language series on Amazon Prime that dramatizes the life of Hernando Cortés, offering a nuanced view of his character and the conquest of the Aztec Empire.

OTHER “La Conquista de México” is an opera by Wolfgang Rihm, premiering in 1992, which explores the psychological and cultural dimensions of the conquest, featuring Cortés as a key figure.

The Mexican artist Diego Rivera depicted Cortés in his works, such as the murals at the National Palace in Mexico City, where he portrays the conquistador as both a hero and a controversial figure.

Cortés is featured in campaigns in the video game Age of Empires II focusing on the conquest of Mexico, with players assuming his role.

“Cortés the Killer” (1975) is a song by Neil Young, written as a critique of colonialism and conquest, metaphorically referencing Cortés' actions.

ACHIEVEMENTS Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire, introduced European agriculture and livestock to the Americas, and played a foundational role in Spanish colonialism.