Georges Cuvier

NAME Georges Cuvier 

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Georges Cuvier was a renowned French naturalist and zoologist, often referred to as the "father of paleontology." He made significant contributions to the understanding of extinct animals and the history of life on Earth.

BIRTH Born on August 23, 1769, in Montbéliard, France.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Cuvier was born into a Protestant family in Montbéliard, Franche-Comté, a region with a strong tradition of scientific inquiry.

Cuvier’s father, Jean George Cuvier, was a lieutenant in the Swiss Guards, while his mother, Anne Clémence Chatel, who was much younger than him, played a nurturing role in his upbringing.

Both parents were members of the Lutheran Church/

CHILDHOOD As a child, Cuvier was physically weak and often in poor health. His mother devoted considerable time to nurturing him both physically and mentally. She taught him to read at age four, provided him with books, and instructed him in drawing.

Young Georges showed an early passion for natural history. At age 10, he encountered Conrad Gessner's Historiae Animalium, which sparked his interest in the subject. He frequently borrowed volumes of Comte de Buffon's Histoire Naturelle from a relative's home

EDUCATION Cuvier's academic journey began with a strong foundation in the classics and sciences. During his elementary and high school years, he excelled in Latin, Greek, Geography, Mathematics, and History, with a particular interest in the latter.

At the age of 14, Cuvier's intellectual promise and artistic talent caught the eye of Duke Charles, who sponsored his enrollment at the Caroline Academy in Stuttgart. Here, he immersed himself in a diverse curriculum that included administration, exposing him to a broad range of subjects. Within a year, he mastered the German language, demonstrating a remarkable aptitude for language learning.

Under the guidance of Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer, Cuvier delved into the world of comparative anatomy, learning dissection techniques and developing a keen interest in the natural sciences. He also explored fields such as economics, law, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, and zoology. As a voracious reader, he voraciously consumed nearly every scientific book in the library. He particulary studied the works of renowned naturalists like Carolus Linnaeus, further fueling his intellectual curiosity.

Known for his exceptional memory and unwavering dedication to his studies, Cuvier's German education, particularly his exposure to the ideas of geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner, significantly influenced his scientific approach.

Upon graduating from the Caroline Academy in 1788, Cuvier embarked on his career as a tutor in Normandy, laying the groundwork for his future contributions to the field of natural history.

CAREER RECORD

1788-1794 Cuvier served as a tutor in Normandy

1795 He began teaching in Paris, initially as an assistant professor of comparative anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes,

1796 His paleontological lecture at École Centrale du Panthéon founded the science of paleontology. 

1802 Professor of Animal Anatomy at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris 

1811, Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart classified fossil mammals and reptiles in the Paris Basin.

APPEARANCE Georges Cuvier's physical appearance evolved over time. In his youth, he was of moderate height and slender build. However, as he aged and adopted a more sedentary lifestyle, he became increasingly corpulent. His nearsightedness also led to a noticeable stoop.

Despite these physical changes, Cuvier maintained a distinctive and memorable appearance. He possessed an aquiline nose, a full mouth, and a broad forehead. His eyes, often described as "sparkling with intellect and expression," were a striking feature.

According to the ornithologist John James Audubon, who met Cuvier later in life, he was approximately 5 feet 5 inches tall with a corpulent build. His face was wrinkled and brownish, with a large, red nose and a wide mouth. His teeth were few and worn, except for one prominent tooth on his lower jaw.

Cuvier, portrait by François-André Vincent, 1795

FASHION He dressed conservatively, adhering to the professional styles of the Napoleonic and Restoration periods.

CHARACTER Cuvier was known for his intense focus and dedication to his work. He was a meticulous observer and a brilliant analyst. He was also a skilled writer and communicator, able to convey complex scientific ideas in a clear and concise manner.

Known for his intellectual rigor and methodical approach, Cuvier was both admired and criticized for his strong opinions and debates.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Despite his reputation as a serious and sometimes intimidating scientist, Cuvier did possess a sense of humor. One of the most famous stories about Cuvier's humor involves a student, possibly emboldened by alcohol, bursting into Cuvier's private quarters dressed as the devil, complete with horns and hooves. The student proclaimed, "I am the devil. I have come to devour you!"

Cuvier, without missing a beat, studied the apparition and calmly replied, "I doubt whether you can. You have horns and hooves. You must be a herbivore." This quick-witted response demonstrates Cuvier's ability to apply his scientific knowledge humorously, even in unexpected situations.

RELATIONSHIPS Georges Cuvier married Madame Duvaucel, née Anne Marie Sophie Loquet du Trazail, on February 2, 1804, when he was 33 years old. Anne Marie was a widow with four children, whose previous husband had been guillotined during the French Revolution's Reign of Terror.

The wedding ceremony was Lutheran and took place in the chapel of the Swedish embassy in Paris, as it was the only place in Paris at that time where Lutherans were allowed to practice their faith.

The Wedding of Georges Cuvier and Madame Duvaucel

Cuvier and Anne Marie had four children of their own, but tragically, three of them died in childhood..

Their only surviving daughter, Clémentine, became Cuvier's research assistant. Sadly, she died of tuberculosis in 1827 at the age of 22, shortly before her planned wedding.

Despite the personal tragedies, Cuvier's marriage appears to have been a happy one. His wife was described as amiable and affectionate, with "conversation ... the most fascinating and brilliant that perhaps ever flowed from a woman's lips

While his professional relationships were prolific, he frequently clashed with contemporaries such as Lamarck and St-Hilaire over evolutionary theory.

MONEY AND FAME Georges Cuvier's career was marked by significant achievements and recognition, though his personal wealth was relatively modest, particularly in his early years.

Upon graduating from the Caroline Academy in 1788, Cuvier faced financial constraints, forcing him to take a position as a tutor to support himself. During the 1790s, as he sought to establish himself in Paris, he continued to experience financial difficulties.

However, Cuvier's exceptional scientific work soon garnered attention. His election to the Academy of Sciences in 1795 and his groundbreaking research on fossil elephants and the Megatherium in 1796 significantly enhanced his reputation.

Throughout his career, Cuvier held numerous prestigious positions, including Professor of Natural History at the National Museum in Paris, Imperial Councillor under Napoleon, and President of the Council of Public Instruction. He was also honored with titles such as Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor. In 1819, Cuvier was created a peer for life and was thereafter known as Baron Cuvier. 

Cuvier's contributions to paleontology earned him widespread acclaim, solidifying his position as the "founding father of paleontology." His name is immortalized among the 72 inscribed on the Eiffel Tower, and he was a member of both the Académie française and the French Academy of Sciences.

FOOD AND DRINK Cuvier's work on animal fossils and extinct species helped establish methods for inferring diet from anatomical structures. He developed the principle of "correlation of parts," which suggests that an animal's anatomical structure is functionally related to its environment and habits, including its diet.

Cuvier's studies of teeth in both living and fossil animals contributed to our understanding of how dental structures relate to diet. For example, he noted that sharp teeth indicate a meat-based diet, while different tooth structures suggest plant-based diets.

MUSIC AND ARTS Cuvier was noted for his excellent skills as an artist. He constantly made drawings of birds, plants, and insects. His artistic abilities were likely crucial in his scientific work, particularly in reconstructing extinct animals from fossil remains.

LITERATURE Georges Cuvier produced several influential works throughout his career. His most famous publications include:

Leçons d'anatomie comparée (Lessons on Comparative Anatomy) Published in 1800-05, this work introduced Cuvier's principle of the "correlation of parts" in animal anatomy.

Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes (Researches on Fossil Bones) First published in 1812, with expanded editions in 1821-24, this work is considered to mark the beginning of vertebrate paleontology. It presented Cuvier's reconstructions of extinct animals and his evidence for the reality of extinction

Le Règne Animal (The Animal Kingdom) Published in 1817, this comprehensive work summarized Cuvier's studies of fossils and living species. It contained over 300 of Cuvier's own drawings and presented his system of animal classification. This book, with its subsequent editions, significantly advanced the classification systems established by Linnaeus.

Butterflies from the 1828 edition of Le Règne Animal

Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du globe (Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe) Published in 1825, this work expanded on Cuvier's earlier essays about Earth's history and extinction events. It presented his catastrophist theory of Earth's geological history.

These publications established Cuvier as a leading figure in comparative anatomy, paleontology, and natural history, cementing his reputation as one of the most influential scientists of his time

Cuvier's publications were noted for their clarity, suggesting a command of language and possibly an appreciation for good writing

NATURE Georges Cuvier had a lifelong passion for the natural world, ignited at the age of 10 when he encountered Gesner's Historiae Animalium. His fascination with the diversity of life drove his groundbreaking work in paleontology and comparative anatomy. 

Cuvier was deeply connected to the study of animals, plants, and their historical contexts, focusing on how different forms of life were distributed and organized. He believed nature’s history was shaped by catastrophic events, which he studied through fossil records.

PETS Though Georges Cuvier was deeply invested in the study of animals, there is no evidence to suggest he kept pets. His interaction with animals was primarily scientific, involving dissections and the study of preserved specimens.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS From a young age, Cuvier was an avid reader. He spent much of his time reading natural history books.  His mother even tried unsuccessfully to divert him from reading so much.

Cuvier enjoyed solitary strolls in the Jardin des Plantes3. These walks likely combined his love for nature with quiet contemplation

SCIENCE AND MATHS Georges Cuvier, a man of immense intellect and a touch of the pompous, was a towering figure in the world of 19th-century science. Dubbed the "founding father of paleontology," he was a bit of a show-off, fond of strutting around and lecturing folks on the wonders of the ancient world.

Cuvier was a master of comparative anatomy, able to reconstruct entire creatures from just a few bones. He had an uncanny knack for spotting patterns and making connections, and he used this skill to revolutionize our understanding of prehistoric life. He was the first to prove that many strange fossils were the remains of long-extinct animals, and he proposed the controversial idea that Earth's history was marked by catastrophic events that wiped out entire ecosystems.

Cuvier's legacy is complex. While his work laid the foundation for modern paleontology, his views on race was deeply flawed and reflect the prejudices of his time. It's a reminder that even the greatest minds can make mistakes, and that science, like any human endeavor, is subject to the biases and limitations of its practitioners.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Georges Cuvier's philosophical and theological views were deeply intertwined with his scientific work and his Protestant upbringing.

Cuvier championed the theory of catastrophism, proposing that Earth's history was punctuated by periodic catastrophic events that led to mass extinctions with the Biblical flood as the most recent. 

Cuvier was a staunch opponent of evolutionary theories, rejecting the ideas of gradual transformation proposed by contemporaries like Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. He adhered to the concept of the fixity of species, believing that species were created as they are and remained unchanged.

Cuvier's theological perspective was shaped by his Protestant faith. Raised in a Lutheran tradition with Huguenot roots, he maintained a lifelong commitment to his religious beliefs. He employed the principle of accommodation, positioning himself between biblical literalism and theological liberalism. This allowed him to reconcile scientific findings with biblical narratives, suggesting that geological "revolutions" could be interpreted as divine interventions.

Cuvier believed in a divine creator who had created the world with all its diversity of life forms. He held that modern species were descendants of their original created pairs. His work aligned with natural theology, which sought to understand God's design through scientific inquiry.

Cuvier's approach to science and religion represented a synthesis of Enlightenment rationality and Protestant faith. He was able to pursue scientific inquiry while maintaining his religious convictions, demonstrating that faith and reason could coexist harmoniously. His work continues to influence our understanding of the history of life on Earth and the relationship between science and religion.

He adhered to the catastrophism view, believing that life on Earth was periodically wiped out by natural disasters, with the Biblical flood as the most recent.

POLITICS Cuvier’s scientific contributions earned him political honors, including his appointment as a life peer.

SCANDAL His rejection of evolutionary theories placed him in long-standing conflicts with Lamarck and St-Hilaire, precursors of Darwin.

Cuvier classified humans into three main races: Caucasian, Mongolian, and Negro. He described native Africans in particularly degrading terms, stating they were "the most degraded of human races, whose form approaches that of the beast and whose intelligence is nowhere great enough to arrive at regular government."

Cuvier's work on dividing humans into "scientifically validated" races was instrumental in later attempts to provide biological justifications for racism. His reputation and scientific authority lent credence to these harmful ideas, influencing subsequent generations of scientists and policymakers.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Cuvier maintained robust health until he succumbed to cholera in 1832.

HOMES Georges Cuvier's life was marked by several significant residences:

Montbéliard, France: Cuvier's birthplace and childhood home, located in the French-speaking region of Franche-Comté, which was then part of the Duchy of Württemberg.

Birthplace of Georges Cuvier in Montbéliard

Stuttgart, Germany: From 1784 to 1788, Cuvier attended the prestigious Carolinian Academy in Stuttgart, where he received a comprehensive education in various scientific disciplines.

Normandy, France: After completing his studies, Cuvier took up a position as a tutor at the Fiquainville chateau in Normandy.

Paris, France: In 1795, Cuvier relocated to Paris to work at the National Museum of Natural History. This city became his primary residence for the remainder of his life. He lived in a house on the northern side of the Jardin des Plantes, with an entrance from Rue Cuvier.

TRAVEL Cuvier’s travels were primarily within France, particularly between Montbéliard, Normandy, and Paris.

DEATH Georges Cuvier died on May 13, 1832, in Paris at the age of 62. His death was caused by cholera, which was prevalent in Paris at that time. This occurred during the early stages of a major cholera pandemic that affected much of Europe.

Cuvier's final resting place is in the famous Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. This cemetery, located in the 20th arrondissement, is notable for being the first garden cemetery and the first municipal cemetery in Paris. It's the burial site of many renowned figures in arts, sciences, and history.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Cuvier has appeared in various academic texts and documentaries exploring the history of paleontology and natural sciences.

Exhibits at natural history museums worldwide, including the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, often showcase Cuvier’s contributions to paleontology, featuring his work with fossils and animal classification.

Historical portraits of Cuvier, such as those depicting him with fossils, are widely circulated in academic contexts and serve as a visual reminder of his scientific legacy.

Cuvier with a fish fossil. By http://wellcomeimages.org/ Wikipedia Commons

ACHIEVEMENTS Pioneered the field of paleontology

Developed the theory of catastrophism

Classified animals into four major groups: vertebrates, mollusks, articulates, and radiates

Established a comprehensive system of comparative anatomy

Cuvier's work revolutionized the understanding of the history of life on Earth and laid the foundation for modern paleontology.

Source Geriwalton.com

George Armstrong Custer

NAME George Armstrong Custer

WHAT FAMOUS FOR  George Armstrong Custer is most famous for his military career during the American Civil War and his controversial role in the Indian Wars, culminating in his dramatic defeat at the Battle of Little Big Horn, known as "Custer's Last Stand."  

BIRTH Custer was born on December 5, 1839, in New Rumley, Harrison County, Ohio.  

FAMILY BACKGROUND  He was one of five children born to Emanuel Custer and Maria Ward, who were farmers of German descent. Emmanuel Custer also worked as a blacksmith.  

His younger brother Thomas Custer was the only soldier to win two congressional medals of honour during the Civil War. He joined his older brother’s regiment and also died at Little Big Horn.

CHILDHOOD  Custer grew up in a modest family. His adventurous spirit and determination shaped his future military career.  

The Custer household was known for its bustling atmosphere, even by 19th-century standards. Emanuel Custer, George's father, had a penchant for practical jokes, a trait that young George, nicknamed "Autie," would inherit. This playful environment likely contributed to Custer's mischievous nature and energetic personality.

At the age of four, Custer's father began taking him to militia meetings of the "New Rumley Invincibles," where the young boy would march behind the group, dressed in a brass-buttoned velvet suit. This early exposure to military life may have influenced his later career choices.

EDUCATION  Custer's education took place in several locations:

Monroe, Michigan: At age ten, Custer was sent to live with his married stepsister Anne Reed in Monroe, Michigan, to attend Stebbins Academy. This move was aimed at providing him with a better education.

Stebbins Academy: Here, Custer showed interest in sports, particularly excelling in wrestling and running, while also performing well in his studies.

Monroe Seminary: At fourteen, Custer attended the local seminary, where he began considering a military career.

Beech Point School: Before entering West Point, Custer worked as a teacher at this small village school in Monroe, where he was popular with his pupils.

McNeely Normal School: Custer also attended this institution, where he earned a teaching certificate

In 1857, with the help of local Congressman John Bingham and financial support from his family (his father sold the farm to raise money), Custer entered the United States Military Academy at West Point. 

His time at the academy was marked by his rebellious nature: He amassed a record 726 demerits, one of the worst conduct records in the academy's history. He graduated in 1861, ranking last in his class of 34 cadets. Despite this, the onset of the Civil War ensured a swift commission as a second lieutenant.  

CAREER RECORD  Custer quickly rose to prominence during the Civil War, participating in key battles such as Bull Run and Gettysburg. 

1861-62 Assigned to the second cavalry. Fought in the civil war as a captain.

1863 Given the temporary rank of Brigadier General.

1864 Given command of General Phillip Sheridan's Third Cavalry Division as a Major General, becoming the youngest U.S. Army officer to achieve the rank of major general. When the Civil War ended he returned to his regular rank of captain.

1866 Appointed Lieutenant Colonel of the 7th Cavalry Regiment and assigned to Kansas to engage in wars against the native Indians. 

1873 Ordered to Dakota territory to protect settlers and miners against the Sioux.

By age 23, he became the youngest U.S. Army officer to achieve the rank of major general. 

APPEARANCE  Custer was a striking redhead with a distinctive long mustache and flowing hair, earning him the nicknames "Yellow Hair" and "Long Hair" from the Sioux.  

Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer in field uniform.

FASHION  Custer was known for his flamboyant, almost theatrical dress, favoring buckskin jackets and custom uniforms with unique accessories, such as a red cravat that emphasized his larger-than-life persona. This interest in presentation likely stemmed from his desire to stand out both on and off the battlefield.

CHARACTER  A charismatic leader, Custer had a reputation as a fearless and aggressive fighter. He was also deeply ambitious, prone to taking risks, and acutely aware of his public image.  

SENSE OF HUMOUR  Custer was known for his playful nature during his time at West Point, where he earned a reputation as a prankster. His penchant for practical jokes was evident throughout his life, showcasing a lighter side to his otherwise serious military career. This added to his reputation as a cavalier and approachable leader among his men.  

RELATIONSHIPS  George Armstrong Custer married Elizabeth "Libbie" Bacon on February 9, 1864, at the First Presbyterian Church in Monroe, Michigan. Their wedding came after a period of courtship that began when they met at a Thanksgiving social in 1862. Initially, Libbie's father, Judge Daniel Bacon, disapproved of the match due to Custer's humble background. However, he relented after Custer was promoted to Brevet Brigadier General, just prior to the Battle of Gettysburg. The ceremony was described as magnificent and was dubbed "the wedding of the century" in Monroe.

Libbie was a devoted partner, accompanying him on frontier expeditions and later preserving his legacy through her writings.  

George and Libbie Custer, 1864

MONEY AND FAME  George Armstrong Custer took out a $5,000 life insurance policy shortly before the Battle of Little Big Horn.

Custer would be called today a "media personality" who understood the value of good public relations—he frequently invited correspondents to accompany him on his campaigns, and their favourable reportage contributed to his high reputation that lasted well into the 20th century. 

FOOD AND DRINK  George Armstrong Custer, like many soldiers of his time, subsisted on a simple, hearty diet tailored to the harsh realities of frontier life.

When leading his troops into battle, Custer and his men relied on a core diet of hardtack, a dense, long-lasting biscuit, salt pork as a protein source, and coffee for much-needed energy. To supplement these rations, they often hunted game, such as deer or wildfowl, and occasionally received canned goods like beans or vegetables.

In more settled times, at military posts, the diet became slightly more varied. Basic carbohydrates like potatoes, peas, beans, or rice were common, along with hot beverages like coffee or tea. Simple seasonings such as sugar, vinegar, salt, and pepper added flavor to the meals. As an officer, Custer likely enjoyed additional privileges, such as access to tinned fruits and, when available, whiskey from sutlers (civilian merchants).

While not a gourmet's delight, this diet provided the necessary sustenance for Custer and his men to endure the rigors of frontier life. The focus was on practicality and durability, rather than culinary sophistication.

Custer was known for sharing his meals with his many dogs, which annoyed Libbie.  

MUSIC AND ARTS  George Armstrong Custer had a particular fondness for the song "Garryowen," which became closely associated with him and his cavalry units

Custer consolidated the musicians in his brigade into one Band. He kept these instrumentalists close, even during battle. During a retreat in the Shenandoah Valley, Custer had his band play on the skirmish line, performing "Yankee Doodle" and his favorite "Garryowen."

As his regiment departed for the Battle of Little Big Horn, the band played "The Girl I Left Behind Me."  

In the fall of 1863, Custer adopted a personal guidon (a type of flag), which was red over blue with white crossed sabers in the middle. This demonstrates his interest in visual symbolism and self-expression.

LITERATURE Custer was a voracious reader and enjoyed history and military biographies.

Custer maintained an extensive correspondence with his wife, Libbie. Their letters reveal not only their deep affection but also Custer's reflective side as he documented his experiences and thoughts during significant military campaigns

Custer documented his experiences in the Indian Wars in his book My Life on the Plains (1874). The autobiography helped shape his public image as a gallant cavalry officer.

Libbie Custer published several books, including Boots and Saddles (1885) and Following the Guidon (1891), which presented Custer as a heroic and romantic figure, solidifying his place in American mythology.

Numerous historians and novelists have tackled Custer’s story, from Evan S. Connell’s Son of the Morning Star (1984), which delves into the complexities of his life, to Larry McMurtry’s Custer (2012), offering a critical view of his legacy.

NATURE Custer enjoyed the outdoors, particularly during his campaigns in the West. He often led expeditions into uncharted territories, which were both professional duties and personal adventures that allowed him to explore the American landscape.

PETS  Custer had a deep appreciation for horses and dogs, keeping numerous pets that accompanied him on campaigns.  

Custer adored his dogs, including a white bulldog named Turk and a greyhound named Byron, who were his constant companions.  

Custer's numerous beagles, wolfhounds and foxhounds shared his food tent and bed to the annoyance of his wife.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS  Custer enjoyed horseback riding, hunting and fishing, pursuits aligned with his frontier lifestyle.  

SCIENCE AND MATHS  Custer had little interest in science or mathematics, as evidenced by his poor academic standing at West Point.  

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY  George Armstrong Custer's spiritual journey was marked by a significant transformation. In his youth, he was known for a wild lifestyle and a lack of religious devotion. However, during the Civil War, he underwent a profound spiritual awakening, becoming a devout Christian.

Custer's newfound faith was central to his life. He renounced alcohol, committed himself to prayer, and believed in the divine protection of God. He carried a personal Bible, which he considered an essential item, even during military campaigns. This deep-rooted faith gave him courage and a sense of destiny, which he often credited for his bravery in battle.

While his Christian beliefs shaped his worldview, Custer's actions were also influenced by other factors. He was known for his aggressive military tactics and his personal ambition. He fought not only for his country but also for the advancement of his family members who served alongside him.

In conclusion, Custer's philosophy was a complex blend of religious faith and worldly ambition. His Christian beliefs provided him with a moral compass and a sense of purpose, while his military career and personal aspirations drove him to push the boundaries of conventional wisdom..  

POLITICS  While not a politician, Custer was a controversial figure in his interactions with Native American tribes, embodying the U.S. expansionist policies of his era.  

SCANDAL  Custer faced court-martial in 1867 for abandoning his post to see Libbie and other breaches of military protocol. Despite this, his career continued.  

MILITARY RECORD  Following graduation, Custer was unleashed into the chaos of the Civil War, Custer quickly proved he had a talent for two things: leadership and a devil-may-care disregard for self-preservation. At just 23—an age when most people today are still deciding what to do with their lives—he found himself promoted to brevet brigadier general, leading cavalry charges with such audacity that Union generals George B. McClellan and Alfred Pleasonton couldn’t help but take notice. At the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, Custer commanded the Michigan Brigade and, despite being wildly outnumbered, somehow managed to fend off General J.E.B. Stuart’s Confederate cavalry during the climactic third day of fighting. For a man who thrived in the saddle, it was one of his shining moments—equal parts heroic, foolhardy, and wildly effective.

Image by Perplexity

In 1864, Custer joined Union General Philip Sheridan in a romp through the Shenandoah Valley during the Overland Campaign, taking on Confederate General Jubal Early and generally making life miserable for the crumbling Southern forces. By 1865, in the waning days of the war, Custer blocked General Robert E. Lee’s final retreat and was on hand at Appomattox Court House for Lee’s surrender—where he surely took great pride in being, once again, right at the center of history.

Following the war, Custer, now a lieutenant colonel, was sent westward to participate in the grim and tragic chapter known as the Indian Wars. His new job involved leading the 7th Cavalry against the Lakota, Sioux, and other Great Plains tribes who were understandably disinclined to surrender their lands and lives.

In 1876, Custer was involved in General Terry's expedition against the Sioux Native American tribes. He was ordered to scout ahead of the main force, Custer's regiment discovered a large Sioux encampment on the Little Bighorn River. Despite orders to wait for reinforcements, Custer, perhaps overconfident, led a premature attack on June 25, 1876.

The Sioux, far outnumbering Custer's force, launched a devastating counterattack. The entire 7th Cavalry regiment, including Custer, was annihilated in what became known as the Battle of the Little Bighorn. The only survivor from the battle was Comanche, Captain Myles Keogh's horse, who lived until 1893 and became a famous symbol of the tragic event.

The event would forever be etched in history as “Custer’s Last Stand”, a phrase that sounds almost romantic until you consider that it involved the total obliteration of Custer and his men.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS  Remarkably resilient in battle, Custer survived multiple engagements with only one minor wound, despite having 11 horses shot out from under him.  

HOMES  Custer and his wife Libbie lived in Quarters 21 at Fort Riley, Kansas from 1866 to 1867. While not the exact residence of the Custer family, the Custer House at Fort Riley offers a glimpse into the lives of 19th-century military officers. Preserved as a museum, it provides visitors with a tangible connection to the past. 

From 1873 until his death in 1876, Custer and Libbie lived in a house at Fort Abraham Lincoln, North Dakota. A reconstruction of this home is now available for tours

TRAVEL Custer relied heavily on horseback riding as his primary mode of transportation during his military career. His iconic cavalry charges, such as the one at the Battle of Gettysburg, where he famously rallied his troops with the cry "Come on, you Wolverines!", showcased his skill as a horseman.

In addition to horseback riding, Custer utilized various other modes of transportation to support his military operations. Wagon trains were a common method of transporting supplies for the Army, but their limitations in rough terrain and slow pace often hindered military movements. To overcome these challenges, Custer adopted the use of pack mules, which provided greater mobility and speed, especially in difficult terrain. This innovative approach proved crucial during his 1876 Little Bighorn Campaign.

Furthermore, Custer's military career involved the use of other modes of transportation, such as hot-air balloons and steamboats. During the Civil War, he served as a military observer, ascending in hot-air balloons to gain a strategic advantage. For larger-scale operations, like the 1874 Black Hills Expedition, steamboats were employed to transport supplies and personnel.

By effectively utilizing a combination of horseback riding, pack mules, hot-air balloons, and steamboats, Custer demonstrated his adaptability and understanding of the importance of mobility and speed in military operations, particularly in the challenging terrains of the American West.

DEATH  On June 25, 1876, during the Battle of Little Bighorn, Custer met his tragic end. While the exact circumstances of his death remain uncertain, accounts suggest that he sustained multiple wounds, including a gunshot and injuries inflicted by Native American warriors, particularly women. His body was found among those of his fallen comrades near the top of Custer Hill.

In the immediate aftermath of the battle, the soldiers of the 7th Cavalry conducted a hasty burial of their fallen comrades, including Custer. They were initially interred in shallow graves marked by wooden tipi poles. Custer's grave, however, was given a more prominent burial, deeper and longer than the others.

In 1877, Custer's remains, along with those of several other officers, were exhumed and reinterred at West Point Cemetery. A granite memorial was erected at the Little Bighorn battlefield in 1881, and over 240 white marble markers were placed to commemorate the fallen soldiers.

The Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, which includes the Custer National Cemetery, stands as a poignant reminder of the tragic events and honors the memory of all who fought and perished in that fateful battle.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA  Custer's life and death inspired numerous depictions in films, and songs.

Custer was a popular subject in early Hollywood. Errol Flynn famously portrayed him in They Died with Their Boots On (1941), a romanticized and highly fictionalized account of his life and death.

Ken Burns’ The West (1996) and PBS’s American Experience: Custer's Last Stand (2012) provide detailed explorations of his life and the events at Little Big Horn.

Custer was featured in episodes of TV Westerns like Bonanza and Death Valley Days.

The 1991 miniseries Son of the Morning Star, based on Connell’s book, offered a nuanced depiction of Custer, played by Gary Cole, and the cultural conflicts surrounding him.

Larry Verne’s novelty song, "Mr. Custer" (1960), which humorously depicted a soldier reluctant to follow Custer into battle, reached #1 on the Billboard charts, showcasing the enduring interest in his story.

Artists like Frederick Remington and Charles Marion Russell captured Custer’s frontier image, often in dramatic battle scenes.

The Custer fight (1903) by Charles Marion Russell

The Custer Battlefield National Monument (renamed the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument) is itself a visual tribute to his infamous last stand.

Custer has appeared in video games like Sid Meier’s Civilization series, where he is sometimes referenced as a Great General.

The 1982 Atari game Custer’s Revenge infamously depicted a crude and offensive caricature of Custer, which sparked widespread controversy and condemnation.

ACHIEVEMENTS  Despite his controversial legacy, Custer remains a symbol of the frontier era. His battlefield tactics during the Civil War and his ability to cultivate public admiration solidified his place in American history.

Marie Curie

NAME Marie Curie (born Marya Skłodowska)

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Marie Curie was a pioneering scientist best known for her discoveries of the radioactive elements polonium and radium, as well as for being the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, in Physics and Chemistry.

BIRTH Born on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland. Her birthplace is now the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum.

FAMILY BACKGROUND Marie was the youngest of five children born to Władysław Skłodowski, a professor of mathematics and physics, and Bronisława Skłodowska, a school principal who died of tuberculosis when Marie was 10. Less than three years earlier, Marie's eldest sister had succumbed to typhus.

Despite his academic brilliance, her father's career was hindered by the oppressive Russian regime that controlled Poland at the time.

Władysław Skłodowski and daughters (from left) Maria, Bronisława, and Helena, 1890

CHILDHOOD Marie was a bright and sensitive child who displayed an exceptional memory and was fascinated by science. She was deeply patriotic and resented being forced to study in Russian instead of Polish. Her idealism led her to dream of overthrowing the Tsarist regime in Poland.

EDUCATION Marie Curie possessed an exceptional intellect and a remarkable memory. At the age of ten, Marie began her formal education at J. Sikorska's boarding school. Subsequently, she attended the Third Female Government Gymnasium in Warsaw. During her time at the gymnasium, Marie was taught physics, Russian literature, and German. 

Marie Curie graduated from the gymnasium on June 12, 1883, at the remarkably young age of 15. She graduated with exceptional academic achievement, finishing first in her class. For her outstanding performance, she was awarded a gold medal. Even after completing her formal education, her father continued to challenge her with advanced mathematics problems.

Image by Perplexity

Following a period of illness, possibly related to depression, she spent a year recovering in the countryside with her father's relatives. The following year, she returned to Warsaw, where she engaged in private tutoring.

During the years 1883 to 1885, Poland was under Russian rule, and women were denied access to higher education. Undeterred, Marie joined a clandestine group of women dedicated to studying science at The Flying University (an underground educational enterprise that operated in Warsaw.

To further her education, Marie worked as a governess from 1885 to 1891, sacrificing sleep and meals to study English, French, and Russian scientific texts. In 1891, she reunited with her sister Bronisława in Paris and enrolled at the Sorbonne where she studied physics, chemistry, and mathematics. This marked a turning point in her life, as she was finally able to pursue her passion for science without restrictions.

At the Sorbonne, Marie immersed herself in her studies, earning degrees in both physics and mathematics, despite struggling with poverty. She topped her class in physics in 1893 and placed second in mathematics the following year. Her dedication to her studies was unwavering; she was known for her tireless work ethic, often neglecting basic needs like food and sleep.

Despite facing numerous obstacles due to her gender, Marie persevered and achieved remarkable success. In 1906, she made history by becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne, solidifying her legacy as a trailblazer in the field of science.

Unable to attend university in Russian-ruled Poland, she studied secretly at the Flying University and later moved to Paris in 1891 to study physics and chemistry at the Sorbonne, earning two master’s degrees despite struggling with poverty.

CAREER RECORD Marie Curie didn't believe a woman's place was to cook for her husband, turn curtains into clothes and bring children up in the traditional Polish way. 

1885 Worked as children's governess for a wealthy country family to support her sister's university education in Paris. 

1895 Became research scientist starting off with a small grant to research magnetism. 

1898: Discovered the elements polonium and radium.

1900 Taught Physics at Ecole Normale Sevres-highest woman's college in France. 

1903: Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel.

1906 Became a professor of physics at the Sorbonne, the first woman to hold this position, succeeding her husband, Pierre

1911: Awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

1914: Founded the Radium Institute in Paris.

1919 Professor of Radiology at Warsaw.

1920s and 30s Active in League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation

APPEARANCE Marie Curie possessed a distinctive appearance, marked by her platinum blonde hair and captivating gray or blue eyes. Her determined mouth and high-arched forehead further added to her striking visage.

Beyond her physical attributes, Curie's demeanor was equally compelling. She was often described as intense and focused, with a strong concentration and a piercing gaze. Her single-mindedness and dedication to her research were legendary, leading some to describe her and her husband's lifestyle as "anti-natural." This intensity, coupled with her brilliant mind, made her a truly remarkable figure.

The toll of her work was evident on her hands, often raw and inflamed from constant exposure to radioactive materials.

Marie Curie c 1920

FASHION Her dark hair was typically styled in a simple updo, a common fashion of the time.

She rarely dressed to attract attention, often choosing practical and simple attire.

Marie Curie was a woman of striking features, often seen in a dark blue laboratory outfit, a practical choice that reflected her dedication to science. 

A unique aspect of her appearance was her wedding dress, which she repurposed as a laboratory outfit. This practical blue cotton dress allowed her to seamlessly transition from her wedding day to her scientific pursuits. The toll of her work was evident on her hands, often raw and inflamed from constant exposure to radioactive materials.

CHARACTER Curie was a determined, hard-working, and modest individual. She believed in focusing on science over personal recognition.

She was shy and private, yet obsessive, intense and incorruptible. As Albert Einstein famously remarked, "Madame Curie is very intelligent but she has the soul of a herring."

SENSE OF HUMOUR Curie was stoic, hard working but not laugh a minute. 

RELATIONSHIPS Marie Curie was a woman of strong convictions, as evidenced by her decision to leave a governess position after being denied permission to marry the son of the family. This bold move led her to Paris, where she embarked on her groundbreaking scientific journey.

In the spring of 1894, Marie met Pierre Curie, a brilliant scientist and a gentle soul. Their shared passion for science ignited a deep connection, and they were married in a civil ceremony in Sceaux, France on July 26, 1895. "Pierre belonged to no religion and I did not practice any" (she later wrote). Instead of a bridal gown, Marie chose a dark blue dress.

Marie and Pierre were deeply in love and worked tirelessly together in their laboratory.

Tragedy struck on April 19, 1906, during a rainy afternoon in Paris when Pierre Curie met a tragic end while crossing the busy Rue Dauphine. The wet conditions significantly reduced visibility, and as he attempted to cross the street with an umbrella, he slipped and fell under the wheels of a heavy horse-drawn cart carrying military equipment, causing fatal injuries. Marie was devastated by her loss but persevered in her scientific work. 

Pierre and Marie Skłodowska-Curie, 1895

Marie and Pierre Curie welcomed their first daughter, Irène, in 1897. Following in her parents' footsteps, Irène Joliot-Curie became a distinguished scientist, earning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, jointly with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Their pioneering research on artificial radioactivity laid the foundation for the discovery of the neutron. This remarkable achievement solidified the Curie family's legacy as the only mother-daughter duo to have received Nobel Prizes.

The Curies' second daughter, Ève, born in 1904, pursued a different path. While her family members were drawn to the world of science, Ève found her passion in the arts. She became a talented concert pianist and a skilled writer and journalist. Her career even included work as a war correspondent, demonstrating her courage and versatility.

In 1911 Marie had an alleged relationship with the married physicist  Paul Langevin (1872-1946) that hit the headlines. They rented a flat near the Sorbonne where they met in secret. A former student of Pierre it is thought Marie was only trying to maternally encourage him in his work and encourage him over personal problems. While the details of their relationship remain speculative, it undoubtedly added to the public scrutiny and criticism she endured.

It is a strange coincidence that Paul Langevin's grandson Michel later married her granddaughter Hélène Langevin-Joliot

MONEY AND FAME In their early years, Marie and Pierre Curie endured significant hardships. They worked tirelessly in often meager conditions, receiving little to no pay for their groundbreaking research. Despite their monumental discoveries, they selflessly refused to patent the process of isolating radium, believing it belonged to the world. This selfless act could have made them immensely wealthy, but they prioritized scientific advancement over personal gain.

Recognition for their work was slow to come. It took several years for the name "Curie" to become synonymous with scientific brilliance. Even after their joint Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, Marie faced gender bias and discrimination within the male-dominated scientific community.

The Curies were humble individuals who shunned fame and fortune. They declined to attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in 1903, citing their teaching commitments. However, by the 1920s, Marie Curie had become an international icon, celebrated for her groundbreaking research and her unwavering dedication to science. Her struggle to secure a tiny sample of radium and her groundbreaking discoveries made her a global sensation, rivaling even Albert Einstein in terms of public recognition. In 1921, she received a gram of radium, a gift valued at $100,000, from American women who admired her work.

1903 Nobel Prize diploma

FOOD AND DRINK As a student in Paris young Marie was so poor and absorbed in her studies she nearly starved to death. Often her meals consisted of buttered bread and tea. Like many Poles she loved her tea. 

MUSIC AND ARTS  Curie may have had some appreciation for the arts, but her dedication to scientific research seemed to leave little time for extensive engagement with them.

Her daughter Eve was a concert pianist, indicating an appreciation for music in the family.

LITERATURE Curie valued scientific texts and worked tirelessly to educate herself through books in multiple languages, including English, French, and Russian.

Marie Curie's books and personal effects are still radioactive today, over 100 years after her death. This includes her laboratory notebooks, papers and even her cookbooks. 

Her notebooks and papers are stored in lead-lined boxes at France's Bibliotheque National in Paris Visitors who wish to view these items must wear protective clothing and sign a waiver of liability

Marie Curie: A Life by Susan Quinn is a comprehensive biography exploring her life and legacy, delving into her personal struggles and achievements.

Radioactive: Marie & Pierre Curie, A Tale of Love and Fallout by Lauren Redniss is a graphic biography that creatively intertwines her personal story with the far-reaching consequences of her scientific discoveries.

Several books aimed at young readers celebrate her achievements, such as Marie Curie: Little People, Big Dreams by Isabel Sánchez Vegara and Who Was Marie Curie? by Megan Stine.

NATURE Marie Curie had a deep appreciation and enjoyment of nature. She stated, "All my life through, the new sights of Nature made me rejoice like a child."

Marie and Pierre took pleasure in long bicycle rides in the French countryside and abroad.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Curie’s main recreational activity was cycling, which she enjoyed during her honeymoon and throughout her marriage. She and Pierre went on numerous cycling trips throughout Europe. Cycling offered them freedom, mobility, and a chance to challenge societal norms.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Marie excelled in mathematics and physics from a young age, often corresponding with her father on advanced problems. 

While examining a uranium-rich mineral known as pitchblende, the Curies made a groundbreaking discovery: a mysterious phenomenon they termed "radiation." Through meticulous and relentless research over two years, they identified the source of this radiation as two new elements: polonium, discovered first, and radium. This discovery marked a significant milestone, ushering in the era of artificial radioactivity.

The isolation of radium proved to be a formidable challenge. It took nearly four years of painstaking work, involving grinding, dissolving, filtering, and crystallizing tonnes of uranium waste. Despite the constant exposure to radiation, the Curies persevered, ultimately extracting a mere tenth of a gram of pure radium from eight tonnes of pitchblende on December 21, 1898.

The Curies announced their discovery of radium on December 26, 1898. They presented their findings to the French Academy of Sciences on this date, informing the scientific community about the existence of this new element. In their announcement, they proposed the name "radium" for the newly discovered element, derived from the Latin word for "ray."

The element was subsequently showcased at the Paris Exposition of 1900, captivating the world with its mysterious glow.

The Curies' groundbreaking work in radioactivity laid the foundation for modern physics and chemistry.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Raised a nominal Catholic, Marie abandoned her faith at 15, believing that scientists should focus on facts rather than personal beliefs.

Curie: "Nothing in life is to be feared only understood." 

POLITICS Curie’s work in Poland’s clandestine Flying University demonstrated her quiet defiance of oppressive Russian rule.

SCANDAL When Marie Curie was awarded her second Nobel Prize in 1911, some speculated that it was granted out of sympathy, as she was navigating a period of public scrutiny following rumors of an affair with the married physicist Paul Langevin. The scandal, fueled by the sensationalist press, significantly tarnished her reputation. 

Marie Curie's groundbreaking work and unwavering commitment to science were often overshadowed by gender bias. Her nomination for membership in the French Academy was ultimately rejected by a single vote, highlighting the prevailing prejudice against women in academia.

MILITARY RECORD During World War I, Marie Curie played a pivotal role in medical advancements by spearheading the use of mobile X-ray units to treat wounded soldiers. As a director of the Red Cross, she organized X-ray stations and dispatched female doctors to the front lines, equipped with portable X-ray equipment.

To power these units, Curie utilized radium emanation, a radioactive gas later identified as radon. She personally provided the necessary tubes of radium emanation, extracted from the radium she had purified. In a remarkable act of patriotism, she even sold her and her husband's Nobel Prize medals to support the war effort.

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Marie Curie's work often exposed her to harmful radiation. She initially underestimated the dangers, attributing her increasing fatigue, weight loss, and other health issues to overwork.

As the years passed, Marie Curie's health deteriorated significantly, leading to multiple cataract surgeries. The long-term effects of radiation exposure, poorly understood at the time, ultimately claimed her life. Despite these risks, her research laid the foundation for modern radiation therapy, a crucial tool in cancer treatment.

During World War I, Curie applied her knowledge of radiation to medical advancements. She played a pivotal role in developing mobile X-ray units, powered by radium emanation, to treat wounded soldiers. By the end of her life, Curie's legacy was solidified not only as a brilliant scientist but also as a 

HOMES In their early years of research, Marie and Pierre Curie worked under challenging conditions in a dilapidated wooden shed attached to the École de Physique et Chimie in Paris.

After their marriage in 1895, Pierre and Marie moved to 108 boulevard Kellermann in Paris.

In 1898, when they discovered radium, the Curies lived at 24 Rue de la Glaciere in Paris. A marble tablet near the entrance commemorates this historic event.

They later moved to 45 Rue des Arts et Métiers. With the prize money from her second Nobel Prize, Marie invested in improving her home, redecorating the walls and installing a modern bathroom.

From 1912 to 1934, Marie Curie lived on Quai de Béthune in Paris, on the Ile St. Louis. She moved here after the scandal involving Paul Langevin in 1911, seeking privacy from public scrutiny.

With the prize money from her second Nobel Prize, Marie invested in improving her home, redecorating the walls and installing a modern bathroom.

TRAVEL The Curies often sought solitude in a remote cottage in Brittany. A curious American journalist once tracked them down, only to find a seemingly ordinary woman at the door. When asked about the famous scientist, the woman replied, "Madame Curie has only this message for reporters: be less curious about people and more curious about ideas."

In 1921, Marie Curie embarked on a triumphant tour of the United States, where she was celebrated for her groundbreaking work. The trip was organized to raise funds for radium research, and she was presented with a gram of radium by President Warren G. Harding.

DEATH Marie Curie died aged 66 of aplastic anemia on July 4, 1934 as a result of her extensive exposure to radiation, She was interred alongside Pierre in Sceaux and later reinterred in the Panthéon in Paris.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Marie Curie’s story has inspired numerous films, and documentaries, reflecting her impact as a pioneering scientist. 

They include:

Madame Curie (1943) A Hollywood biopic starring Greer Garson as Marie Curie and Walter Pidgeon as Pierre Curie. The film was critically acclaimed and earned seven Academy Award nominations, though it romanticized aspects of her life.

Radioactive (2020) This biographical drama, starring Rosamund Pike as Marie Curie, offered a more modern interpretation of her life, incorporating visual representations of the impact of her discoveries, such as their role in cancer treatment and atomic weaponry.

Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge (2016) A French-Polish biopic that explores her personal and professional life, including her controversial relationship with Paul Langevin and the challenges of being a woman in science.

Marie Curie has been featured in numerous science and history documentaries, including BBC specials and PBS's American Experience. These programs often highlight her scientific contributions and the societal barriers she overcame.

Other appearances in media include The Half-Life of Marie Curie (2019), a two-woman play by Lauren Gunderson focusing on Marie Curie’s friendship with scientist Hertha Ayrton during the tumultuous period following her affair with Paul Langevin.

Marie Curie has been immortalized in paintings and statues worldwide, including one at the Radium Institute in Paris and a mural in Warsaw.

The Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum in Warsaw, located in her birthplace, is dedicated to her life and work.

ACHIEVEMENTS

Discovered polonium and radium.

Marie and Pierre Curie announcing their discovery of radium to the French Academy of Sciences

First woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice.

Revolutionized medical care with mobile X-ray machines during World War I.

Became the first female professor at the Sorbonne.

The curie-the unit of radioactivity equal to that emitted by one gramme of radium is named after her. 

Left a legacy of scientific excellence, with her daughter Irene also winning a Nobel Prize.

Samuel Cunard

NAME Sir Samuel Cunard

WHAT FAMOUS FOR Founder of the Cunard Line, one of the world’s most important transatlantic steamship companies and a pioneer of scheduled ocean mail service.

BIRTH Samuel Cunard was born on November 21, 1787 in a small house behind 257 Brunswick Street in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which was then a British colony. His birthplace was a strategic maritime port that would profoundly influence his future career in shipping.​

FAMILY BACKGROUND Samuel was the second child of Abraham Cunard (1756–1824) and Margaret Murphy (1758–1821). The Cunard family were Quakers originally from Worcestershire, England, who fled to Germany in the 17th century to escape religious persecution, taking the name Kunder. Samuel's great-great-grandfather emigrated from Germany to Pennsylvania in 1683, where the family name became anglicized to Cunard.​

Abraham Cunard was a Loyalist who fled the American Revolution, moving to Halifax in 1783 after his assets were confiscated by rebels. He worked as a master carpenter for the British garrison and became a successful timber merchant and landowner. 

Margaret Murphy was Roman Catholic, her family having immigrated from Ireland to South Carolina in 1773 before also fleeing to Halifax as Loyalists a decade later. 

Samuel was the second of nine children (two girls and seven boys) in a household where his mother's alcoholism spurred him to assume responsibilities at an early age.​

CHILDHOOD Samuel's entrepreneurial instincts manifested in childhood when he sold produce from the family garden to local stores. There are also stories saying he knitted a sock while driving the family cow to pasture and sold dandelions for profit to attend nightly auctions. (1)

By age 17, he was managing his own general store, buying stock in broken lots at wharf auctions. The family motto "By perseverance" would prove prophetic for young Samuel's relentless work ethic.​

EDUCATION Samuel attended Halifax Grammar School in Nova Scotia. After his formal schooling, he gained practical business training through an apprenticeship with a shipbroker in Boston at age 18, where he honed the exceptional organizational and numeracy skills that would later define his business empire. This hands-on experience in the maritime trade provided more valuable training than traditional academic pursuits.​

CAREER RECORD Cunard became a successful merchant and shipowner in Halifax, building a fleet and diversifying into whaling, timber, and coastal trade.

1838 He emigrated to Britain.

1840, Cunard partnered with George Burns of Glasgow and David McIver of Liverpool to found the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company — later the Cunard Line.

His line introduced regular, reliable mail service across the Atlantic, transforming global communication. Within 30 years, Cunard employed 11,500 people and owned 46 vessels.

APPEARANCE Portraits and photographs show Cunard as a dignified Victorian gentleman: strong features, composed expression, neatly styled hair. He was “somewhat below middle height” and in his formative years Cunard was described as  "a bright, tight little man with keen eyes, firm lips and happy manners." (2)

Samuel Cunard

FASHION Cunard preferred conventional, conservative attire — dark suits, waistcoats, and cravats. His style reflected discipline and respectability rather than flamboyance

CHARACTER Samuel Cunard embodied the quintessential Victorian entrepreneur—ambitious, pragmatic, and relentlessly hardworking. He was admired as an excellent strategist and fair-minded man who overcame obstacles through sheer perseverance, true to his family motto. 

Cunard was long remembered for his brisk step, quick and ready movements, and an air of "push." (1)

Although a hard-nosed, pushy, and shrewd negotiator, he showed altruism. In the recession of 1817, he and another businessman provided soup kitchen facilities for Haligonians on the brink of starvation.

His most defining characteristic was his unwavering commitment to safety over speed, famously instructing his captains: "Ship, passengers and mail, bring them safely over, and safely back". This principle established Cunard Line's legendary safety record. 

He displayed remarkable resilience, navigating financial crises, evading creditors, and using his political connections to eliminate competition and secure government contracts.​

SPEAKING VOICE Accounts describe him as soft-spoken but authoritative. His voice conveyed calm confidence rather than bluster.

SENSE OF HUMOUR Not known for flamboyant wit, Cunard’s humour was understated.

RELATIONSHIPS Samuel Cunard married Susan Duffus, the daughter of William Duffus, a Halifax merchant in the wholesale dry goods trade on February 4, 1815 at Halifax. Susan (1795–1828) bore him nine children—two sons and seven daughters. His elder son Edward Cunard eventually inherited control of the Cunard Steamship Company, while his younger son William managed the family's Halifax business interests. 

Samuel's wife Susan died on February 28, 1828 due to complications after their daughter Elizabeth's birth, leaving him a widower at age 41. Though he became one of the wealthiest men in Nova Scotia, he eventually retired to England, where his descendants settled.​

Cunard worked closely with George and James Burns, Charles and David MacIver, and shipbuilder Robert Napier in founding the shipping line. His business partnerships were unusually harmonious for the age, marked by mutual respect and steadiness.

STEAMSHIPS Samuel Cunard’s career really got going when he returned to Halifax from Boston at the age of twenty-one and—displaying the sort of confident brass one normally associates with people who’ve already made their fortune—persuaded his father to rename the family business Abraham Cunard & Son, thus promoting himself by signage alone. The firm dealt in timber and shipping, two industries that in early-19th-century Nova Scotia were as essential as oxygen, tea, and people complaining about the weather.

The Cunards snapped up captured American vessels—bargain shopping on an international scale—and acquired vast stretches of timberland in Cumberland County. By the 1830s, Samuel had become the nominal head of the whole sprawling enterprise, and, as if lumber and ships weren’t enough, he decided to dabble in finance. In 1825 he put £5,000 into founding the Halifax Banking Company, which was not a small gesture for a man still building his empire. One imagines him doing it with the same casual flourish one uses to toss coins into a fountain.

The real turning point arrived in 1839, when Cunard sailed to England and audaciously submitted a bid for the British government’s transatlantic mail contract. On February 11, 1839, he proposed a fortnightly service run by three 800-ton steamships—an idea so forward-thinking it bordered on science fiction by the standards of the day. Astonishingly, he won. The result was the magnificently titled British and North American Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company, which sounds less like a business and more like a vessel for conveying dignitaries and small pianos.

Its first purpose-built steamship, Britannia, launched in 1840, departing Liverpool on 4 July and reaching Halifax ten days later. With that voyage, Cunard quietly established the world’s first scheduled transatlantic steam service, thereby shrinking the Atlantic in a way that would permanently alter global travel.

Britannia of 1840 (1150 GRT), the first Cunard liner built for the transatlantic service

Not content with merely moving mail, Cunard added passenger accommodations, essentially inventing the concept of the ocean liner. It was an inspired idea, though not always a profitable one—at least not in the early days, when the company’s finances wobbled so precariously that in 1842 Cunard had to escape Halifax creditors by covertly boarding one of his own ships from a rowing boat. This is the sort of episode that would undo most businessmen; for Cunard, it seems merely to have been an inconvenient Wednesday.

His charm, persistence, and well-tended Admiralty connections eventually paid off. Government subsidies increased, rival companies disappeared with suspicious swiftness, and the line expanded to New York, added iron screw steamers, and even pushed into Mediterranean routes. By this point, Samuel Cunard had done something rather extraordinary: he had taken the uncertain, weather-beaten business of ocean travel and turned it into a reliable timetable—an act of organisation so improbable it stands as one of the great civilising gestures of the 19th century.

MONEY AND FAME Following Britannia's maiden voyage, the novelty of the transatlantic steamship service propelled him into the spotlight, and he received over 1000 dinner invitations [2.4]. The line quickly became known as 'Mr. Cunard's Line'

Samuel Cunard amassed enormous wealth, becoming one of the richest men in Nova Scotia through his timber, shipping, and banking ventures. His fame reached its zenith when Queen Victoria created him a Baronet on March 9, 1859, honoring his contributions to British shipping and the Crimean War effort (his line provided 11 troop transports and two hospital ships). 

He died an "English merchant prince," having successfully transformed from colonial entrepreneur to British aristocrat. 

FOOD AND DRINK Early Cunard ships lacked refrigeration and therefore carried live cows for milk and chickens for eggs on transatlantic crossings. (3)

 

MUSIC AND ARTS Samuel Cunard was a member of the Sun Fire Company, which was noted not only for firefighting but also for its social life, including balls, sleigh rides, and similar festivities

Samuel Cunard's ships would later become famous for their onboard musical entertainment.

LITERATURE His surviving letters appear in official correspondence of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec, and the British Colonial Office. Their tone were functional and transactional rather than literary—very much in keeping with the standard epistolary norms of nineteenth‑century merchants and colonial officials

Author Charles Dickens sailed with Cunard on Britannia's maiden voyage in July 1840, documenting the historic journey.​

NATURE Samuel Cunard's family's timber business depended on Nova Scotia's vast forests, and he acquired extensive timber lands in Cumberland County.​

Cunard admired the maritime environment — the sea was both his livelihood and his lifelong fascination. He served as a Commissioner of Lighthouses on the Nova Scotian coast, a role to which he was especially devoted

PETS There is no strong record of him keeping pets, though many shipowners of the time kept dockyard animals or working dogs. If he kept any, they did not feature prominently in his biography.

HOBBIES AND SPORTS Samuel's life appears entirely devoted to business, with no documented hobbies or sporting activities outside his maritime commercial interests.

SCIENCE AND MATHS Cunard possessed exceptional mathematical and engineering acumen essential for steamship operations. He understood the technical specifications of ship design, engine power, and the calculations required for profitable mail contracts, specifying precise requirements: three 800-ton vessels with 300 horsepower engines for his original bid.​

He embraced new technology, especially steam power, earlier than many shipowners.

PHILOSOPHY & THEOLOGY Raised in a household blending Quaker paternal heritage with Roman Catholic maternal influence, Samuel absorbed both traditions. His Quaker ancestors had fled religious persecution, instilling a family culture of resilience. However, throughout his personal life Cunard was not a religious man and was considered by many to be agnostic.

Cunard's personal philosophy centered on perseverance, exemplified by the family motto "By perseverance". 

In business ethics, he prioritized safety above all else, establishing a corporate culture that valued human life over profit or speed.​

One modern narrative history of Cunard and Brunel reports that, when offered last rites, Cunard declined and said he “did not feel and admit and believe,” and this wording has been copied into later summaries, including an online encyclopaedia entry. However, major scholarly biographical treatments and reference entries on Cunard’s life (including Canadian and Nova Scotian biographical dictionaries) do not mention this episode at all, and they do not cite any contemporary letter, medical report, or eyewitness testimony for such a statement. 

Sir Samuel Cunard by unknown artist

POLITICS A lifelong Tory, Cunard engaged actively in colonial governance. He was proposed for local assembly elections in 1826 but later withdrew his candidature.

Cunard was appointed to the Council of Twelve in November 1830, a role advising the Governor, deliberating over bills, and acting as a civil court of appeal. Reformers objected to the concentration of power among the wealthy elite, and he resigned on October 1, 1840

He was an early pioneer of racial equality, banning any kind of racial segregation on ships connected to his name. His statements regarding abolitionist Frederick Douglass's segregated passage arranged by a Cunard Agent in Liverpool in 1845 strongly suggest his anti-slavery stance, although his specific views on slavery in the 19th century are not explicitly known.

SCANDAL The most dramatic scandal occurred in March 1842 when Cunard had to escape British creditors by clandestinely boarding one of his own steamers from a rowing boat, his finances overstretched by steamship investments and land purchases. 

Critics accused him of unfair competition, alleging he used political connections to eliminate rivals like the Great Western Steam-Ship Company. His cozy relationship with the Admiralty enabled him to secure contract extensions and increased subsidies while competitors struggled.​

MILITARY RECORD During the War of 1812, Samuel Cunard volunteered for the 2nd Battalion of the Halifax Regiment militia, rising to the rank of Captain. He served the British Empire against the United States while simultaneously securing licenses to trade with American ports, demonstrating his pragmatic approach to wartime commerce. His military experience provided valuable strategic thinking that later applied to his shipping operations.​

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Physically robust in his youth and middle years, Cunard remained active well into later life.

HOMES Samuel spent his formative years in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where the family established their timber and shipping headquarters. The family owned extensive property, including timber lands in Cumberland County and a country estate in Pleasant Valley. 

In his later years, Cunard retired to London, England, living in Kensington at the time of his death. 

TRAVEL Cunard's business required constant transatlantic travel between Halifax, Boston, Liverpool, and London. 

In January 1838, he accompanied relatives to England to explore land purchases on Prince Edward Island, where he became immersed in discussions about steamship technology. 

His most significant journey occurred in January 1839 when he sailed to Falmouth on the packet Reindeer, armed with letters of introduction and plans for his "ocean railway" that would revolutionize transatlantic communication.​

Cunard was among the 64 passengers aboard the maiden voyage of the Britannia in July 1840, which sailed from Liverpool to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and then to Boston, Massachusetts. 

DEATH Sir Samuel Cunard died on April 28, 1865 at his home in Kensington, London, at age 77. He left control of the Cunard Steamship Company to his son Edward, ensuring the family legacy would continue. His remains are interred at Brompton Cemetery in London.​ His legacy continued through the Cunard Line, which became a symbol of safety, prestige, and innovation in ocean travel.

APPEARANCES IN MEDIA Though not a media figure in the modern sense, Samuel Cunard's most notable public appearance was alongside author Charles Dickens on Britannia's maiden voyage in July 1840, which Dickens documented, providing valuable publicity for the new steamship line. 

His life and achievements have been featured in numerous biographical works, shipping histories, and the Cunard Line's official historical materials including the biography Steam Lion: A Biography of Samuel Cunard by John Langley.​ 

ACHIEVEMENTS Founder of the Cunard Line

Pioneer of scheduled transatlantic mail service

Established one of the most reliable early steamship companies

Set standards of safety, punctuality, and professionalism that defined ocean travel for decades

Employed tens of thousands and built a fleet of 46 vessels within three decades

Knighted for his service to British commerce and communication

Sources: (1) Dictionary of Canadian Biography (2) Shipping Today and Yesterday (3) Encyclopaedia of Trivia